
Class. 
Book. 



SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT 



GREENE'S ANALYSIS. 

A TREATISE 

lXAAr\ 

f^ & ■'# 0N THE 

> J 

STRUCTURE 

OF THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE; 

OH THE 

ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION 

OF 

SENTENCES AND THEIR COMPONENT PARTS: 

Y^ITH 

ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXERCISES, 

ADAPTED 

TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS 



By SAMUEL S. GREENE, A. M. 

PRINCIPAL OF THE PHILLIPS GRAMMAR SCHOOL, BOSTON. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT, & CO. 

1848. 



^i> 









Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, 

By Samuel 8. Greene, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of 

Massachusetts. 



STEREOTYPED AT THE 
BOSTON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. 



PRINTED BY SMITH & PETERS, 

Fiauklin Buildings, Sixth Str^t below Arch, Philadelphia, 



PREFACE 



The following treatise contains, as its title indicates, a system 
for analyzing sentences. In the preparation of the work, it has 
been the aim of the author, first, to determine the number and 
the nature of the elements which can enter into the structure of 
a sentence, and, secondly, to ascertain their various forms and 
conditions. Notwithstanding the almost infinite variety of sen- 
tences with which the language abounds, it is worthy of remark 
that the number of different elements in any sentence can never 
exceed five. It is equally remarkable that the offices which these 
elements perform are few and uniform, although they may as- 
sume an endless variety of forms. 

As to the forms of the elements, it would seem, at first, a hope- 
less task to attempt a classification of them ; yet they are found 
to differ essentially from each other only in three respects. An 
element may be a word joined to another without a connective, 
or it may be a word joined by means of a preposition, — both to- 
gether forming a phrase ; or it may be a subordinate proposition, 
joined by a connective, and constituting a clause. Any element 
may also be subject to three different states or conditions. It 
may be simple, that is, unmodified or uncompounded ; it may 
be complex , that is, modified by another simple element ; or it 
may be compound, that is, it may consist of two or more simple 
elements, which in no way modify each other. The same dis- 
tinction prevails in entire sentences. A sentence containing but 
one proposition is simple ; a sentence containing two propositions, 
one of which modifies the other, is complex ; a sentence contain- 
ing two propositions which in no way modify each other, is com- 
pound. 

Some of the numerous advantages arising from studying gram- 
mar, or rather language, through the structure of sentences, 
are the following : — (1.) As a sentence is the expression of a 
thought, and as the elements of a sentence are expressions for 
the elements of thought, the pupil who is taught to separate a 
sentence into its elements, is learning to analyze thought, and 
consequently to think. (2.) The relations between different 
forms of thought and appropriate forms of expression, are seen 
most clearly by means of analysis and construction. (3.) A large 
proportion of the elements of sentences are not single words, but 
combinations or groups of words. These groups perform the office 
of the substantive, the adjective, or the adverb, and, in some one of 



4 PREFACE. 

these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. 
The pupil wtio learns to determine the elements of a sentence, 
must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he 
separates them into the single words which compose them. This 
advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing. 
(4.) But the grand advantage to be gained from this method may 
be seen in the facility which it affords the learner for constructing 
the language. If English Grammar teaches " the art of speaking 
and writing the English language correctly," — the only successful 
method of obtaining a knowledge of that art is, by means of con- 
struction and analysis. This system cannot be pursued with even 
tolerable success, without requiring the pupil to construct re- 
peatedly the various forms of sentences and elements of sen- 
tences. Such exercises afford the teacher an opportunity of cor- 
recting all errors in orthography, punctuation, construction, and 
the use of words. 

It may be further added, that this system is only applying to 
the English what, in our higher seminaries, is applied to the classic 
languages. And as these seminaries are to be supplied mainly 
from our common schools, a demand is created for a more philo- 
sophical plan of teaching the English language. 

The parts of this work are so classified and arranged that the 
learner commences with the simplest forms, and advances by a 
natural and easy gradation to the most difficult. A brief system 
of etymology is introduced in connection with the analysis ; but, 
that it may not interrupt the progress of the work, it is arranged 
in an Appendix, and is referred to as the learner advances. The 
parts in large type are to be studied, while those in small type 
are intended for the teacher and the more advanced pupil. It 
may be well, on going through the work for the first time, to omit 
some portions of the larger type. It is the author s intention, as 
soon as practicable, to prepare an abridgment of the work, in 
which the most important principles only will be discussed, and 
accompanied with such exercises as will adapt the work to a 
younger class of pupils. 

In the preparation of this treatise, the author acknowledges his 
indebtedness to the excellent Latin Grammar of Andrews and 
Stoddard, and especially to that of Dr. Kiihner, translated from the 
German by Professor J. T. Champiin, of Waterville College ; also 
to the invaluable Greek Grammars of Professor A. Crosby and of 
Dr. Kiihner: those of Dr. Kiihner were translated, the larger by 
Professor B. B. Edwards and S. H. Taylor, of Andover, the 
smaller by S. H. Taylor, principal of Phillips Academy. Much 
aid has been derived from the work of George Crane, and from 
that of De Saey, on General Grammar. 

Cherishing the hope that this work may contribute, in some 
small degree, to improve the methods of teaching the English 
language, the author submits it to the judgment of a candid 
public. 

S. S. GREENE 

Boston, 1847, 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 1. 

ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST CLASS. 

PAGE 

Sect. I. Preliminary Remarks and Definitions, 10 

II. The Proposition. — Principal Elements, • 15 

III. Modifications of the Subject, 20 

1. Number of the Subject, 21 

2. Gender of the Subject, 22 

3. Person of the Subject, 24 

4. Case of the Subject, 26 

IV. Modifications of the Predicate, • 28 

1. Modifications of the Predicate-Nominative, 28 

2. Modifications of the Predicate-Adjective, 30 

3. Modifications of the Verb, 33 

Number and Person of the Verb, . . . 34 

Mode of the Yerb, 35 

Tense of the Verb, 39 

V. Adjective Element, 47 

1. Adjective "Words, 49 

2. Nouns or Pronouns,.... 53 

VI. The Objective Element, 56 

1. Single Object, 58 

2. Double Object, 59 

VII. The Adverbial Element, 62 

1. Adverbs denoting Place, 63 

2. Adverbs denoting Time, • 63 

3. Adverbs of Cause or Source, 63 

4. Adverbs denoting Manner, 64 

Comparison of Adverbs, 65 

VIII. Interjections and the Case Independent, 68 

IX. Complex Elements, 69 

X. Compound Elements, - 73 

XI. Several Elements of the same Name. — Recapitulation, . 80 



O CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER II. 

ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS. — PHRASES. 

PAGE. 

Sect. I. Nature of Elements of Second Class, 84 

1. Component Parts of the Phrase, 85 

2. The Phrase considered as a Whole, 87 

II. The Phrase used as a Principal Element, *...... 88 

1. The Subject, 88 

2. The Predicate, 92 

III. The Phrase used as the Adjective Element, 95 

IV. The Phrase used as the Objective Element, 98 

1. Single Object, 98 

2. Double Object, 99 

V. The Phrase used as the Adverbial Element, 102 

1. Phrases denoting Place, 103 

2. Phrases denoting Time, 105 

3. Phrases denoting Cause or Source, 107 

4. Phrases denoting Manner, 107 

VI. Complex Elements, • Ill 

VII. Compound Elements, • 117 

VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, . .... 119 

IX. Interrogative Sentences, • 121 

1. Direct Interrogative Sentences, 122 

2. Indirect Interrogative Sentences, 123 



CHAPTER III. 

ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. — SUBORDINATE 
CLAUSES. 

Sect. I. Nature of Elements of the Third Class, • 127 

1. Component Parts of the Subordinate Clause, .... 128 

2. The Clause considered as a "Whole, 128 

3. Uses of the Substantive Clause, 129 

II. Subordinate Clauses used as Principal Elements, 130 

1. The Substantive Clause used as Subject, 131 

2. The Predicate, 134 

III. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adjective Element, ... 135 

1. Adjective Clauses,. 135 

2. Substantive Clauses, .., 138 



CONTENTS. 7 

PAGE. 

Sect. IV. Subordinate Clauses used as the Objective Element,.. 141 

1. Single Object, 141 

Direct and Indirect Quotation, 142 

2. Double Object, 143 

V. Subordinate Clauses used as the Adverbial Element, . 147 

1. Clauses denoting Place, 148 

2. Clauses denoting Time, 149 

3. Clauses denoting Causal Relations, 151 

Clauses which denote a Cause or Reason,. 152 

Conditional Clauses, 154 

Final Clauses, 156 

Adversative Clauses, 158 

4. Adverbial Clauses denoting Manner, 160 

VI. Complex Elements containing Clauses, 162 

VII. Compound Elements of the Third Class, 164 

VIII. Several Elements of the same Name, 166 

IX. Abridged Propositions, 167 



CHAPTER IV. 

COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

Sect. I. Copulative Coordinate Clauses, 177 

II. Adversative Coordinate Clauses, 180 

III. Alternative Coordinate Clauses, 181 

IV. Recapitulation, 183 



CHAPTER V. 

VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES. 

Sect. I. Sentences considered as a "Whole, 186 

II. Arrangement of the Elements, 189 

1. Arrangement of the Principal Elements, ........ 189 

2. Arrangement of the Adjective Element, 191 

3. Arrangement of the Objective and Adverbial 

Elements, 191 

III. Peculiarities of Structure, 195 

1. Peculiarities in the Structure of Sentences, 195 

2. Peculiarities in the use of the Parts of a Sen- 

tence, 197 

IV. Equivalents , 200 



CONTENTS. 



APPENDIX. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

PAGE. 

Lesson I. Letters, . . , . , 203 

II. Syllables and "Words, .. 205 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Lesson I. Parts of Speech, 206 

II. Classes of the Noun and Pronoun, 207 

III. Number of the Noun and Pronoun, 209 

IV. Gender of the Noun and Pronoun, 210 

V. Person of the Noun and Pronoun, 211 

VI. Case of the Noun and Pronoun, 212 

VII. Adjective Words, 214 

VIII. Classes of Verbs, 217 

IX. Number, Person, and Voice of the Verb, 223 

X. Mode of the Verb, 224 

XI. Tense of the Verb, 2. 

XII. Adverbs, 24l 

XIII. Prepositions, 241 

XIV. Interrogatives, 242 

XV. Connectives, 242 



SYNTAX. 

Rules for The Subject, 244 

" The Predicate, 244 

" The Adjective Element, 244 

" The Objective Element, 244 

" The Adverbial Element, 245 

" Interjections and the Case Independent, 246 

" Connectives, 246 



PROSODY, 248 



PUNCTUATION. 252 



ANALYSIS OE SENTENCES. 



1. Language is the medium through which we 
communicate our thoughts. 

2. Discourse is a continued series of thoughts, 
each expressed by an assemblage of words called a 
sentence. 

3. A series of sentences relating to the same 
subject, or the same branch of the subject, is called 
a paragraph. 

4. A sentence may be considered as a whole, or 
m reference to its component parts. 

5. The component parts of a sentence are the 
words, phrases, and clauses which enter into its 
structure. 

6. A sentence, considered as a whole, either 
declares something, asks a question, expresses a com- 
mand, or contains an exclamation. 

The following are examples of each kind of sentence : 
— Declarative. "There are certain social principles in 
human nature, from which we may draw the most solid 
conclusions with respect to the conduct of individuals and 
communities." — Interrogative. " When was it that Rome 
attracted most strongly the admiration of mankind, and 



10 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

impressed the deepest sentiment of fear on the hearts of 
her enemies ? " — Imperative. " Shut now the volume of 
history, and tell me, on any principle of human probability, 
what shall be the fate of this handful of adventurers." — 
Exclamatory. " How different would have been our lot 
this day, both as men and women, had the Revolution 
failed of success ! " 

7. The component parts of a sentence are called 
its elements. 

8. A sentence may contain five distinct elements. 
Of these, two are indispensable to its formation, 
and are hence called principal elements. The 
other three are dependent on these, and are hence 

Called SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

9. Each of these five elements may take three 
distinct forms, called the first, second, and third 
classes of the elements. 



CHAPTER I. 

(simple sentences.) 
ELEMENTS OF THE FIRST CLASS. — WORDS. 



SECTION I. 
PRELIMINARY REMARKS AND DEFINITIONS. 

10. An element of the first class is a single word 
used as a constituent part of a sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 11 

11. A word is the sign of an idea. 

(a.) An idea is a mental picture or conception of an object, either 
material or immaterial, and may be represented singly ; as, tree, 
river, horse; or as associated with some other idea ; as, tall tree, 
deep river, wild horse. In the first examples, tree, river, horse, 
represent single ideas of the objects which they name ; but in 
the second, the ideas represented by tall, deep, and wild, are as- 
sociated with them. 

(b.) Some words are used merely as signs of the relation of 
ideas (see 14, b.) ) as, " Kingdom of Great Britain." 

12. Connected ideas require a corresponding 
connection of the words which represent them ; as, 
faithful man, house of representatives. 

The words faithful and man are connected so as to show a 
relation between the two ideas which they represent. So also 
are house and representatives. 

13. In connecting words, we must attend both 
to the mode and the nature of their union. 

14. The Mode of Union. Words may be unit- 
ed in two ways : — 

(a.) By joining them immediately, that is, without 
a connective; — first, without change of form ; as, 
good food, summer residence, very quickly ; — second, 
with the form of one or both the united words 
changed; as, " Arabia-n horses;" "Abraham-'s 
tent ; " " Thou sit-test ; " — 

(&.) By using a connective to denote the relation 
between them ; as, " Horses from Arabia ; " " The 
tent of Abraham ; " " Thou art sitting." 

This mode of union is sometimes called mediate. 

15. The Nature of the Union. We natural- 
ly distinguish objects by means of some of their 
properties ; as, their color, — black, white, red, blue ; 



12 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

their form, — long, short, wide, deep ; their actions. 
— running, flying, swimming, crawling ; their genus 
or species, — animal, bird, fish, serpent. These 
properties are called attributes. 

16. An attribute may be united to its object, — 
(a.) By assuming a union, or by joining it without 

an assertion ; as, blue slcy, rough sea, poisonous rep- 
tiles ; — 

(6.) By affirming a union, or by joining it with 
an assertion ; as, " The sky is blue ; JJ " The sea 
is rough ; " " Reptiles are poisonous." 

In either case, the attribute is united to the object. In the 
former, the fact that the property belongs to the object is only 
implied, conceded, or taken for granted; whereas, in the latter, 
the same is affirmed, declared, or predicated. In the first case, 
the attribute is joined immediately to its object; in the second, it 
is joined to it, and asserted of it, by a peculiar connective called 
the copula. 

17. The copula is some modification (is, are, 
was, &c.) of the verb to be. Its office is, to assert 
an attribute of the thing to which it belongs. 

18. The distinction between assuming and pred- 
icating an attribute, is of great importance in the 
construction of language ; and, that the learner may 
become familiar with it at the outset, let him attend 
to the following exercise : — 

Exercise 1. 

Tell which of the following expressions contain an 
assumed, and which a predicated property : — 

Sweet apples. Running water. Ice is melting. Shin- 
ing gold. George is well. Fading flowers. Stars are 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 13 

shining. Snow is falling. Sour grapes. The wind is 
blowing. Fire is burning. John is a carpenter. Singing 
birds. Open doors. Barren fields. Hissing serpents. A 
long journey. Hope is deferred. 

Change each of the above expressions, by pred- 
icating the assumed, and assuming the predicated 
properties. 

Model.* "Apples are sweet ; " " Water is running ; n 
" Melting ice." 

Mention three or more properties of each of the 
following objects : — 

Gold, horses, books, iron, ocean, whales, edifice, peaches, 
dogs, man, king, moon, water, ink, oil, lamp, table, money, 
pens. 

Unite them first as assumed and then as predicated 
properties. 

Model. Heavy gold ; precious gold ; yellow gold ; po- 
rous gold. 
Model. Gold is heavy ; gold is precious ; gold is yel- 
- low ; gold is porous. 

19. When an attribute is predicated of an ob- 
ject, the united ideas constitute a thought, and the 
form of expression is called a sentence, (from the 
Latin word sententia, a thought.) Hence, 

20. A sentence is a thought expressed in words. 

21. When an attribute is assumed of an object, 
no thought is expressed, but simply two ideas are 
associated. (11, a.) 

* These exercises may be written or recited orally. It is rec- 
ommended that the practice of writing lessons should be adopted 
as a general rule. 

2 



14 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

22. In the formation of a sentence, there must, 
therefore, be two parts, — that to which the attri- 
bute belongs, and the attribute itself; and the lat- 
ter must be affirmed of the former. 

23. That to which the attribute belongs is called 
the subject ; and the attribute itself, with the word 
which connects (17) it to the subject, is called the 
predicate. 





EXAMPLES. 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


Birds 


are singing. 


Bees 


are industrious. 


George 


is coming. 


Victoria 


is queen. 



24. It very often happens that the attribute and 
copula are united in one word. 





EXAMPLES. 


Subject. 


Predicate. 


Birds 


sing, (are singing.) 


George 


comes. 


Winds 


blow. 


Stars 


shine. 



Note. When the predicate contains the copula and the attri- 
bute in one word, it may always be resolved into these two parts , 
as, " Winds blow," u Winds are blowing." 

25. The uniting of words, to form a sentence, 
is called construction or synthesis. 

26. The resolving of a sentence into its ele- 
ments, or of any complex element into the parts 
which compose it, is called analysis. 

27. A simple sentence contains but one propo- 
sition. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 15 

28. A complex sentence contains two or more 
dissimilar propositions. 

29. A compound sentence contains two or more 
similar propositions. 



SECTION II.* 

THE PROPOSITION— PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 

Note. The pupil should learn Lesson L, in the Appen- 
dix, p. 206, before studying this section. 

30. A proposition is the combination of a 
subject (23) and predicate, and is either a simple 
sentence, or part of a complex or compound sentence. 

31. The subject is that of which something is 
affirmed. 

32. The predicate is that which is affirmed. 

33. The subject is commonly a noun or pronoun. 

(a.) Other parts of speech may be used as nouns, and there- 
fore may become the subject ; as, " Once is sufficient ; " " Be- 
hind is not before." 

(£.) Any word, used merely as a word, may be the subject ; 
as, u Is is a verb ; " " Qfisr a preposition." 

(c.) A syllable or letter may be the subject ; as, " Un is a pre- 
fix; " " A is a vowel." 

34. The predicate consists of two parts, — the 
verb, or copula, (17,) and that which is asserted 

* Note to Teachers. The pupil should now commence the 
Appendix. The lessons of the Appendix are made to corre- 
spond, as nearly as possible, to the sections of Chap. I. Since 
it is the chief object of this arrangement to bring the principles 
of etymology into immediate use, as the pupil advances, the 
lessons of the Appendix should be learned only as they bl^g 
referred to, in the body of the work. 



16 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

by it, called the attribute; (15,) as, "Snow is 
white. 

It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the 
learner, at this stage of his progress, that the copula is that 
which gives vitality to language. No sentence can be formed 
without it. Any number of attributes joined to a subject with- 
out it would not form a proposition. The omission of this im- 
portant connective is that which distinguishes the first attempts 
of children to utter their thoughts; as, "Cake good," for 
" Cake is good." 

35. When the two parts of the predicate are 
united in one word, (24,) that word is always a 
verb ; as, "John writes" 

(a.) Verbs which contain the copula and attribute are some- 
times called attributive verbs, because the attribute is included 
in them. 

(b.) The verb to be is sometimes an attributive verb; it then 
denotes existence, and is commonly preceded by there, and fol- 
lowed by its subject; as, "There are dolphins," "Dolphins 
exist." 

(c.) Besides the verb to be, there are several others which 
do not complete the predicate, but take after them some word de- 
noting a propert}^ of the subject ; as, " Beggars are becoming nu- 
merous ; " u He is called handsome.''' These verbs are sometimes 
called copulative verbs. They are such as become, seem, appear ; 
and the passive forms of deem, style, name, call, consider, and 
others. 

36. Of a subject we may predicate, — 
(a.) What it does; as, " Birds fly ; " — 

(b.) What qualities it possesses; as, "Sugar is 
sweet ; — 

(c.) What it is ; as, "Wheat is a vegetable" 

Of these predicates, («.) is always a verb ; (b.) an adjective; and 
(c.) a noun or pronoun. 

37. These three parts of speech, — the noun, 
(including the pronoun.) the verb, and the adjec- 



-ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 17 

rive — are most commonly used to form the two 
principal elements of the sentence. 

Note. Either of these three parts of speech may also be used 
to form the subordinate elements of a sentence. 

38. A sentence containing only the two princi- 
pal elements; is said to be unlimited, and is analyzed 
(26) by pointing out the subject and predicate. 

39. Unlimited propositions should be analyzed 
according to the following 

Models for Analysis. 

" Birds fly" . is a proposition, because it contains a sub- 
ject and predicate. 

" Birds "... is the subject, because it is that of which the 
action (36, a.) "fly" is affirmed. 

" Fly " .... is the predicate, because it is the action 
affirmed of " birds." 



" Snow is white " is a proposition, because it contains a 

subject and predicate. 
" Snow " ... is the subject, because it is that of which 

the quality (36, b.) "white" is affirmed. 
" Is white " . . is the predicate, because it is the quality 

affirmed of " snow." " Is " is the verb or 

copula, and u white " is the attribute. 



" Gold is a metal " is a proposition, because it contains 

a subject and predicate. 
lt Gold " .... is the subject, because it is that of which the 

class * (36, c.) metal is affirmed. 

* When the predicate is a noun, it commonly denotes to what 
genus, species, or class, the subject belongs. Sometimes it de- 
notes identity ; as, " It is James ; " " I am he." 

9* 



18 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

u Ts a metal" . is the predicate, because it denotes the class 
which is affirmed of " gold." u Is " is the 
verb, and " metal,'' the attribute. 

Exercise 2. 

Analyze the following propositions, according to the 
models : — 

Brutus determined. George was conscious. Stare 
shine. Writers differ. Trees are plants. Virtue ennobles, 
Wisdom directs. Caesar conquered. Kings reign. Bich- 
ard was bold. Nero was cruel. Socrates was a philoso- 
pher. Night comes. Exercise strengthens. Serpents 
crawl. Winds blow. Eagles soar. Historians write. 
Boys play. Geography is interesting. 

Exercise 3. # 

Predicate action (36 ? a.) of the following sub- 
jects : — 

Horses, water, eagles, whales, quadrupeds, Columbus, 
Washington, father, mother, insects, wind, stars, children, 
fire, rain, leaves, grass, time, robbers, armies, moon, 
George, kings, wasps, acorns. 

Model. Horses run. Water flows. 

Predicate quality (36, 6.) of the following 
nouns : — 

Life, peaches, ice, play, arithmetic, cloth, chairs, money, 
health, intemperance, history, darkness, morning, wisdom, 

* The pupil should write these and similar examples upon a 
slate or paper, drawing a line under the illustrative word, and 
placing a period ( . ) at the end of each proposition. The first 
word in each sentence should commence with a capital. The 
exercises, after being corrected, should be copied into a writing 
book. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 19 

fruit, clothing, ink, grass, sky, cherries, : r er, fruit, sol- 
diers, labor, wool, Mary. 

Model. Life is short. Peaches are ripe. 

Predicate the class or species (36, c.) of the fol- 
lowing subjects : — 

Henry, lemons, ducks, lilies, city, dogs, trouts, lions, lead, 
sheep, marbles, knives, air, Peter, Stephen, David. 
Model. Henry is a scholar. Lemons are fruit. 

Let the pupil select the subjects and predicates 
of each sentence from a paragraph in his reading 
lesson, and tell whether action, quality, or species, is 
predicated. 

Exercise 4. 

Note. Before performing this exercise, learn Lesson II. in 
the Appendix. 

Analyze the following propositions, and tell which 
subjects are proper, which are common, and which 
are collective, nouns : — 

Alexander conquered. Zeno was a philosopher. Gray 
was a poet. Orders were issued. Snow falls. Temper- 
ance is a virtue. Waves dash. Darkness prevails. The 
army marched. The school was dismissed. The council 
was divided. Wrestling is dangerous. Lying is wicked. 
Charles reads. Age overtakes. Poets sing. Winds blow. 

Exercise 5. 

Write subjects to the following predicates : — * 
Proper Nouns. Is able ; was prevented ; believes ; 
sings ; dances ; plays ; is a merchant ; is a teacher ; is de- 
lighted ; must come ; is honorable ; is faithful. 
Model. Samuel is able. 



20 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Common Nouns. Rim ; is content ; is laudable ; is. 
pleasant ; is consumed ; can live ; write ; are trees ; are 
birds ; are fishes ; is desirable ; is contemptible. 
Model. Horses run. 

Collective Nouns. Was divided ; was convened ; were 
pleased ; was defeated ; was dismissed. 

Model. The school was divided. 

Note. The pupil should review these exercises before com= 
mencing Section III. He should be required to point out the 
nouns, verbs, and adjectives, giving the class of each noun 
- A pp. Les. II.) 



SECTION III. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT. 

40. Any change in the application of the sub- 
ject, whether produced by altering the word which 
represents it, or by adding other words to it, is 
called a modification of the subject. 

Although it is the principal office of the subject * to repre- 
sent some person, thing, or some abstract idea, as the basis of an 
affirmation, yet the mechanism of language affords certain means 
by which its application may be so varied as to accommodate it 
to the existing state of the fact to be predicated. 
The application of the subject may be varied, — 
1st. By some change in the word which represents it; as, " The 
soldier perished;" " The soldiers perished;" the assertion in 
the first sentence applying to one person, that m the second to 
more than one ; — 

* Subject is derived from the Latin word subjectus, placed 
under, i. e., as the foundation of the sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 21 

2d. By additional words ; as, " Ten soldiers perished; " " Brave 
soldiers perished." Here the subject, " soldiers," is restricted in 
its application to a certain number, (ten,) or to a certain class, 
(brave.) 

Note. As this latter species of modification introduces a new 
element of the sentence, any further consideration of it must be 
deferred for the present. 

41. When the application of the subject is va- 
ried by some change or inflection in the word 
which represents it, the modification is called an 
accident, or an accidental property ; as, " brother, 
brothers ; " " priest, priestess ; " w man, men." 

42. The accidental properties of the subject, or 
of the noun, in any relation, are number, gender, 
person, case. 

(a.) These properties belong to the noun or pronoun, either 
as subject, (31,) attribute, (15,) or object, (117.) 

(b.) The accidents of the subject are shown, — 1st. By a 
change of form; as, " bird, birds ; " " hero, hero-ine ; " — 2d. By 
a change of the word, itself; aa, U He sings," (when I speak of the 
singer;) " You sing," (when I speak to the singer;) " J sing," 
(when 1 am the singer;) — 3d. By a prefix ; as, " a Ae-goat," 
M a cock- sparrow." 

(c.) Some nouns admit of no inflection to denote a change in 
their application ; as, deer, sheep, vermin. 



1.— Number of (lie Subject. 

43. The subject may represent one person or 
thing, or more than one, as acting; as, " The branch 
withered ; " " The branches withered." 

44. There are two numbers, — the singular and 
ihe plural. The singular denotes but one object, 
the plural more than one. 



22 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

• K a.) Number is usually indicated by a change of form. 

Note. For the formation of the plural, see App. Lesson III., 
which should be studied before attending to the following 
exercise. 

Exercise 6. 

Analyze the following examples, giving the num- 
ber and class of Cach noun : — 

Columbus sailed. Stars shine. James decreed. Corn- 
wallis surrendered. Candia is an island. Socrates was 
poisoned. Lions roar. Grapes fall. Trees decay. 
Churches stand. Foxes are cunning. Weeds overrun. 
Benjamin was seen. Silver shines. Pencils are used. 
Washington was president. Kings are rulers. Eggs are 
broken. Vinegar is sour. 

Write predicates to the plurals of the following 

nouns : — 

Star, son, pipe, monarch, church, hero, fife, ox, cargo, 
ship, man, child, lily, wolf, wife, folio, muff, negro, sheep, 
mystery, vermin, lady, turkey, chief, hoof, mouse, goose, 
fly, box, day, duty. 

Model. Stars shine. Sons obey. 

II, — Gender of the Subject. 

45. All animals of the same species are either 
male or female. From this distinction arises the 
grammatical accident gender. 

46. Most nouns denoting the different relations 
among men, and those of the most common and 
useful animals, also indicate their sex : as, father, 
mother ; uncle, aunt ; son, daughter ; ram, ewe ; cock, 
hen. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 23 

47. But , to those animals which are less useful, 
or are less observed by man, but one name is given 
for the male and female ; as, sparrow, mouse, pigeon. 

(a.) In such cases, the sex is usually determined by a prefix ; 
as, cock-sparrow, he-mouse. 

(b.) Some nouns denoting the mutual relations among men 
do not indicate sex ; as, parent, teacher, child. 

48. Inanimate objects are incapable of any such 
distinction as sex ; yet the term gender, as a gram- 
matical distinction, is applied to nouns denoting 
such objects. 

49. There are, therefore, three distinctions called 
genders, — the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

(a.) Gender is indicated either by the word itself, by a change 
in the word, or by a prefix or suffix. 

Note. The pupil should now study Lesson IV. in the Ap- 
pendix. 

Exercise 7. 

Write subjects to the following predicates : — 

Masculine Gender. Conquered ; is wise ; was detested ; 
is a blacksmith ; is discreet ; are confiding ; are discharged ; 
is lame ; are emigrating ; is benevolent ; is grateful ; will 
devour ; gnaw ; will fight ; complain ; eat. 

Feminine Gender. Is brooding ; lowed ; is playing ; 
sings ; is cheerful ; rode ; is a teacher ; is practising ; can 
dance ; was injured ; are anxious ; are faithful ; are 
chirping ; are attentive. 

Neuter Gender. Roll ; grow ; is solid ; is deceptive ; 
blows ; shines ; is falling ; is a vegetable. 

Models. Alexander conquered. The hen is brooding. 
Stones roll. 



24 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Analyze what you have written, telling the number 
and gender of each noun. 

III. — Person of the Subject. 

50. The person of the subject is that property 
which shows its relation to the speaker. 

51. The speaker may sustain one of three 
relations to the subject ; he may be himself the 
subject, he may speak to the subject, or he may 
speak of the subject. These relations are denom- 
inated the first, second, and third persons respec- 
tively ; as, " I write ; " " You write ; " " He writes." 

(a.) These relations are indicated by the word employed ; as, 
I, thou, he. Hence any change in the relation is indicated by a 
change in the word ; as, " / write," " You write." 

52. To denote these three relations, a peculiar 
class of words is used, called personal pronouns. 

(a.) These pronouns are not used simply to avoid repetition. 
The subject in the first and second persons must always be a pro- 
noun. A noun cannot be employed. One would not be under- 
stood to speak of himself, if he should say, " Henry wrote : " he 
must say, " I wrote." We should say, for the second person, 
"You read," and not "Alexander reads." But in the third 
person, the name of the subject may be used, as, " Henry wrote," 
and, to avoid repetition, " He wrote." 

(b.) These pronouns are called personal, because they are 
used to indicate the grammatical accident person. They show 
the relation of the subject to the speaker. 

(c.) These pronouns are sometimes called substantive, because 
they may take the place of the noun in any of its relations ; 
whereas the relative pronoun can never become the subject of a 
sentence, though it maybe the subject of a dependent proposition. 
Hence the relative pronoun cannot be considered in this con- 
nection. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 25 

53. The personal pronouns which may repre- 
sent the subject are, — 

First Person, .!,..'• singular. 

We, plural. 
Second Person, Thou, (You,) singular. 

Ye, You, . . . plural. 
Third Person, . masculine, He, \ 

feminine, . She, > singular. They, plural. 

neuter, . . It, > 

Note. Study Lesson V. in Appendix, and then perform the 
following exercises : — 



Exercise 8. 

Analyze the following propositions, and give the 
person of each subject : — 

I am well. You sit. We have come. He is delirious* 
Thou art the man. Wisdom is profitable. Paul preached. 
She is writing. It is true. They labor. Ye resist. 
Boys play. Larks sing. Insects buzz. 

Write subjects in the first, second, and third 
persons respectively, to each of the following predi- 
cates, making such changes in them as may be 
necessary : — 

Is late ; am exhausted ; is plundering ; is a pupil ; might 
be educated ; is affable ; art content ; play ; sing ; lead ; 
is a mathematician ; will be satisfied ; can find ; did de- 
fend ; does reply. 

Model. We are late. Thou art late. He is late. 

IV Case of the Subject. 

54. Case denotes the relation of a noun or pro- 
noun to other words. 
3 



26 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

55. There are three cases, — the nominative, 
possessive, and objective, 

56. The case of the subject denotes its relation 
to the predicate, and is always nominative ; hence 
the following rule: — 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the 
subject of a proposition must be in the nom- 
inative case. 

Note. The rules for construction will be given whenever the 
principles on which they are founded are developed. They 
should be strictly observed in writing sentences, and applied in 
parsing. 

57. Parsing consists in naming a part of speech, 
giving its modifications, relation, agreement or de- 
pendence, and the rule for its construction. Analy- 
sis consists in pointing out the words or groups of 
words which constitute the elements (8) of a sen- 
tence. Analysis should precede parsing. 

Note. Study Lesson VI. in the Appendix. 

Models for Analysis and Parsing. 

George writes. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 

proposition. 

George . . is the subject, because it is that of which the 

action " writes " is affirmed. 
Writes . . is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed 

of " George." 
George . . is a proper noun, of the third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, nominative case, and 
is the subject of the proposition, " George 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 27 

writes ; " according to Rule L, "A noun or pro- 
noun used as the subject of a proposition must 
be in the nominative case." 

He is active. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 
He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number, masculine gender, nominative 
case, and is the subject of the proposition, " He 
is active ; " according to Rule I. 

Exercise 9. 

Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
subjects : — 

I am prepared. Jesus wept. Milo lifted. Money 
tempted. Rain descended. Abraham was faithful. Job 
was patient. Comets appear. Planets revolve. Solomon 
prayed. They will quarrel. He is ruined. David was 
king. We must study. England was invaded. William 
conquered. Harold was defeated. Exercise strengthens. 

Stealing is base. Thou art seated. She is coming. 
It rains. It snows. It lightens. You can sing. He is 
detestable. Fishes swim. 

Write subjects to the following predicates : — 

Is a monster ; are coming ; is burning ; neigh ; art wise ; 
were handled ; is numbered ; is a giant ; are reptiles ; are 
vegetables ; is a beverage ; is impossible ; will be defeat- 
ed ; paints ; draws ; is a conductor ; dances. 

Write ten entire sentences of your owji, having only 
a subject and predicate ; select also the subjects and 
predicates from ten sentences in your Reading Lesson. 



28 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SECTION IV. 

. MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE. 

58. Any change which varies the application 
or meaning of the predicate, whether produced by 
altering either of the words (copula or attribute) 
which represent it, or by adding other words to it, 
is called a modification of the predicate. 

(a.) As it is the chief office of the subject to represent some 
person or thing as the basis of an affirmation, so it is the princi- 
pal office of the predicate * to denote what is affirmed. But, like 
the subject, it can be made, by certain changes, to represent 
other properties not essential to it as predicate. 

(6.) These changes are produced either by varying the form 
of the attribute (34) or copula, or by adding other words to one 
or both of them. 

59. When the modification takes place by unit- 
ing two verbal forms, or by altering the form either 
of the copula or attribute, (41,) it is called an acci- 
dent or an accidental property of the predicate ; and 
the variation is called an inflection. 

(a.) The verbs which unite with others to form the various 
modifications of the predicate, are called auxiliaries. 

(b.) When the predicate is modified by the addition of any 
other word than an auxiliary verb, a new element of the sentence 
is introduced ; as, " Birds fly swiftly; " " Edmund sold oranges ," 
(40, note.) 

L — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE-NOMI- 
NATIVE. 

60. When the attribute of the predicate (34) is a 
noun or pronoun, it may be varied, like the subject, 

* Predicate, from the Latin word predicare, to affirm, declare* 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 29 

to denote number, gender, person, and case. (See 
Section III.) The following is the rule for the 
construction of the predicate-nominative : — - 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun used with the 
copula to form the 'predicate, must be in the 
nominative case. 4 

(a.) When a noun or pronoun is thus used, it is called the 
'predicate-nominative, to distinguish it from the subject-nomina- 
tive. The predicate-nominative always denotes the same person 
or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. When 
the predicate-nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees with 
the subject in gender, number, and case. 

(b.) By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neutei 
pronoun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as 
predicate of any number, person, or gender ; as, "It is I; " " It is 
they ; " " It is James ; " " It is she." 

(c.) This rule applies when such verbs are used as are men- 
tioned in 35, (c.) 

Models for parsing the Predicate-Nominative. 

Gold is a metal. 

(See Model for Analysis, p. 17.) 

Metal is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, nominative case, and with 
" is " forms the predicate of the proposition, " Gold 
is a metal;" according to' Rule IL, "A noun or 
pronoun used with the copula to form the predi- 
cate, must be in the nominative case." 

He is called a hero. 

Hero is a common noun, of the third person, singular num- 
ber, neuter gender, nominative case, and, with " is 
called," forms the predicate of the proposition, " He 
3# 



30 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

is called a hero ; 5 ' according to Rule II.," A noun or pro- 
noun used with the copula to form the predicate, must be 
in the nominative case." 

Note. Observe that this proposition has two attributes, called 
and hero, both of which, with is, constitute the predicate. (See 
35, c.) 

Exercise 10. 

Analyze the following propositions, parsing the 
subjects and attributes : — 

Demosthenes was an orator. I am he. It is I. It is 
Abraham. Horses are animals. He was considered a 
genius. She is a poetess. Madison was elected presi- 
dent. We are pupils. He is deemed a workman. They 
have become teachers. Borneo is an island. Algebra is 
a science. Air is a fluid. Water is a liquid. Oxygen is 
a gas. He appeared as * agent. He is regarded as a 
historian. 

Write a subject and copula to each of the following 
nouns and pronouns taken as attributes : — 

You, soldier, treatise, I, she, king, trees, vegetables, 
Andrew, Benjamin, animals, virtue, book, they, we, ser- 
pent, fish, insect, reptile, flower, plant, mineral, bay, har- 
bor, planet, comet. 

Model. It is you. He was a soldier. 

II. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE- AD J EC- 
TIVE. 

61. When the attribute of the predicate is an 
adjective, it may be varied to indicate, — 

* Sometimes as, denoting office, capacity, or situation, is used 
to connect a property (either predicated or assumed) with the 
word to which it belongs ; as, " The moon as satellite attends ; " 
u He was regarded as innocent," 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 31 

[a.) That the subject possesses the quality de- 
noted by the adjective in a higher or lower degree 
than some other person or thing with which it is 
compared; as, "Charity is greater than hope;" 
"Charles is smaller than James;" — 

(6.) That the subject possesses the quality de- 
noted by the adjective in the highest or lowest 
degree, when considered in reference to all other 
objects with which it is compared ; as, " The 
greatest of these [three] is charity." 

Note. Instead of being compared with another person or 
thing, the subject may be compared with itself, since it may, at 
different times, or under different circumstances, possess a quality 
in different degrees ; as, " His health ; * h etter to-day than it was 
yesterday." 

62. The variation of the adjective to show dif- 
ferent degrees of quality, is called comparison. 

(a.) Comparison is indicated, — 1st. By changing the form of 
the adjective; as, wise, wiser, icisest; — 2d. By changing the 
word; as, bad, worse, worst ; — 3d. By adding other words; as, 
industrious, more industrious, most industrious. 

(b.) As comparison always requires an additional element of 
the sentence to complete the sense, the subject cannot be fully 
discussed in this connection. 

Note. For the formation of the comparative degree, see Ap- 
pendix, Lesson VII. 

63. The degrees of comparison are, the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

(a.) Comparison applies to the adjective, either as a predicated 
cr an assumed property, (16.) 

(b.) When the adjective is used to form the predicate, it is 
called the predicate-adjective, to distinguish it from the adjective 
when used as a modifier. 



33 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

64. The predicate-adjective should be parsed by 
the following rule : — 

Rule III. An adjective used with the cop- 
ula to form the predicate, belongs to the subject. 

(a.) In other languages, the relation of the adjective to the 
subject is indicated by an agreement in number, gender, and case. 

Models for parsing, the Predicate-Adjective. 
He is benevolent. 

(Analyze according to the models, Sect. II.) 

Benevolent is an adjective, of the positive degree, (com- 
pared, benevolent, more benevolent, most be- 
nevolent,) and forms with " is " the predicate of 
the proposition, " He is benevolent." It be- 
longs to "Ae," according to Rule III., "An 
adjective used with the copula to form the pred- 
icate, belongs to the subject." 

Richard is older [than John.] * 

Older ... is an adjective, of the comparative degree, 
(compared, old, older, oldest,) and forms with 
" is " the predicate of the proposition, " Rich- 
ard is older." It belongs to the subject, 
according to Rule III. 

Achilles was the bravest [of the Greeks.] 

Bravest . . is an adjective, of the superlative degree, 
(compared, brave, braver, bravest,) and forms 
with " was " the predicate of the proposition, 
"Achilles was," &c. It belongs to "Achil- 
les," according to Rule III. 

* The words in the brackets should be omitted in analyzing, as 
the pupil is not prepared to explain them, (62, b.) 



analysis of sentences. 33 

Exercise 11. 

Analyze the fallowing examples, and parse the 
adjectives : — 

Washington was wise. The country is free. The fur- 
niture is old. The child is weak. The wind is cold. 
The ice is thin. The water is deep. The soil is rich. 
The boards are rough. The general is brave. Edward 
is sick. Life is short. The streets are wide. The 
doo; is faithful. George is industrious. The constable 
is active. Gold is precious. Diamonds are combustible. 
The sun is brilliant. The days are long. 

Write predicate-adjectives to complete the follow- 
ing : — 

Jonas is. The moon is. The ocean is. Truth is. He 
is. Washington was. Arnold was. Flowers are. I am. 
Ice is. Roses are. 

Model. Jonas is sick. 

Write a subject and copula to each of the following 
adjectives used as predicates : — 

Handsome, powerful, awful, warm, mild, gentle, able, 
sad, mournful, judicious, wise, discreet, unsuccessful, kind. 
Model. The horses are handsome. 

Write ten sentences of your own, using a predicate- 
adjective. 

III. — MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. 

65. The verb (except " to be ") includes both the 
copula and attribute, whether separate, as, " Flowers 
a'-e blooming," or combined, as, "Flowers bloom." 

(a.) The verbal attribute, when separated from the copula, is a 
kind of adjective. It partakes of the properties both of the 



34 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



adjective and verb, and is hence called a participle. Like the ad- 
jective, it denotes some property of a noun. It may represent 
either an assumed ox predicated property ; as, u Horses running ; " 
" Horses are running." It relates to the noun in the same man- 
ner as the adjective, (64.) But, on the other hand, unlike the 
adjective, it expresses action ; it may be blended with the copula, 
and form the predicate, (24 ;) it may, like the verb, represent the 
different conditions of the action, and may receive the same limi- 
tations by additional words as the verb does. 

b.) The copula and participle, when distinct, constitute a pe- 
culiar form of the verb, called the progressive form. 

66. Verbs are divided into regular and irregular, 
transitive and intransitive. The first distinction has 
reference to their form ; the second, to their use. 

Note. For further particulars respecting the classes of verbs, 
see Appendix, Lesson VIII. 

67. The accidents of the verb are number, per- 
son, mode, and tense. They show a relation both 
to the subject and the speaker. 

Number and Person of the Verb. 

68. The number and person of the verb are 
properties which show its agreement with the sub- 
ject. Like the subject, the verb has two numbers 
and three persons. 

(«,} Number and person are not so distinctly marked in Eng- 
lish as in most other languages. 

(&.) Both number and person, so far as shown at all by the 
verb itself, are indicated by a change of form. 

EXAMPLES. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person, I am ; First Person, We are ; 

Second Person, Thou art ; Second Person, You are ; 

Third Person, He is. Third Person, They are. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 35 

69. The following is the rule for the construc- 
tion of the verb : — 

Rule IV. The verb must agree with its 
subject in number and person. 

(a.) This rule applies to the copula when distinct from the 
attribute, or to the verb when both are united j as, " Thou art 
sleeping; " " Thou sleepesf." 

Note. Observe that the form art indicates the number and 
person, precisely in the same way as does the termination est. 

(£.) To this rule there properly is no exception. There is, 
however, an apparent exception in the case of collective nouns, 
which, in the singular number, may take a verb in the plural. 
If, in using such a noun, reference is had to the individuals form- 
ing the collection, the verb should always be plural ; otherwise it 
should be singular. 

Note. Study Lesson IX., in the Appendix. 

Exercise 12. 

Analyze the following sentences, giving the number 
and person of each verb : — 

I write. He speaks. We say. They are riding. She 
is painting. You intimate. Thou thmkest. Gibbon nar- 
rated. Francis drives. Plants thrive. Trees grow. 
Friends advise. Teachers direct. It rains. They run. 
Stars shine. 

Write each of these sentences, separating the copula 
from the attribute : — 

Model. I am writing. 

Write subjects to the following verbs, talcing care 
to use the right number and person : — 

Sleeps, consent, chatters, walkest, are studying, com- 
mand, preach, whistle, delays, abides, live, beseech, be- 



36 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

tray, consignest, disfigure, is contriving, was finishing, art 
spinning, mayst stop, does deliberate, wilt stay. 
Model. Susan sleeps. We consent. 

Correct the following sentences : — 
James think. I readest. We speaks. You writes. 
Henry recitest. She complain. They viewdest. Thou 
is learning. We art ready. Some says. He lead. 
George art weeping. 

Model. James thinks. James think is incorrect, be- 
cause think does not agree with James in number, 
according to Rule IV. 

Mode of the Verb. 

70. Mode shows the manner in which the attri- 
bute is asserted of the subject. 

(a.) Mode relates to the manner of the assertion, not to that 
of the thing asserted, and therefore affects the copula rather than 
the attribute. Hence, when a verb contains the copula and attri- 
bute united, mode should be regarded as affecting the assertion, 
and not the action. The manner of the action is deter- 
mined by additional words, as will be shown in a subsequent 
section. 

(b.) Jlssert, in this connection, is used in opposition to assume, 
(see 16, a.) It applies to all cases in which an attribute is con- 
nected with a subject by the copula, whatever may be the particu- 
lar mode of connection. 

71. An attribute may be connected with the 
subject so as to show that it actually exists as a 
property of the subject ; as, " James is rich." 

(a.) When a property does not actually exist in the subject, its 
absence is declared in a similar manner; as, " James is not rich." 

(5.) A property may exist in the subject, and the speaker may 
be ignorant of it. He can then inquire after its existence as 
something actual; as. " Is James rich ? " 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



37 



Note. Actuality is the idea which is common to these three 
cases. 

72. An attribute may be connected with the 
subject, so as to show not that it really exists in it, 
but that such an existence is possible, probable, 
necessary, or obligatory ; as, " James may be rich, — 
can be rich, — must be richy 

(#.) Here, again, the possibility or necessity may be denied or 
inquired for; as, "James cannot, must not, may not be rich)" 
u Can, may, or must James be rich ? " 

Note. The idea of possibility, liberty, power, necessity, or ob- 
ligation, is the peculiarity of these forms of the verb. 

73. An attribute may be connected with the 
subject so as to show, not actuality or possibility, 
simply, but a mere conception of something doubtful 
or conditional; as, " should virtue become vice;" 
" if it rains ; " " were he wrong." 

Note. Conditionality is the peculiarity of this form. 

74. An attribute may be connected with the 
subject so as to show that its existence as a prop- 
erty of the subject is commanded, exhorted, or ew- 
treated ; as, "Be rich;" "Be [thou] kind;" 
"Go;" "Sit." 

Note. This form of the verb represents our desires. 

75. An attribute may be stated abstractly, hav- 
ing no connection with a subject; as, "to be 
rich ; " " to write ; " "being rich ; " " writing." 

76. These various forms of the verb are classi- 
fied by grammarians under five divisions, called 
modes ; — 

The indicative, which represents what is ac- 
tual; — 

4 



38 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The potential, which represents what may, can, 
or must be ; — 

The subjunctive, which represents 'what is condi- 
tional ; — 

The imperative, which commands, exhorts, en- 
treats ; — 

The infinitive, which represents an attribute ab- 
stractly. 

77. The infinitive and participle are forms of 
the verb, but not strictly modes. (See 70.) 

(a.) The infinitive may be regarded as a verbal noun, and 
the participles as verbal adjectives. (For the classes and forms 
of the participle, see Appendix.) 

(5.) Mode is indicated chiefly by auxiliary verbs, (59, a.) 

(c.) The subjunctive and infinitive modes are used only as 
subordinate parts of a sentence, and cannot, therefore, be dis- 
cussed here. 

Note. Study Lesson X., in the Appendix. 

Exercise 13. 

Analyze the following propositions, giving the 
mode of each verb. Give also the number and person, 
according to Rule IV. 

The scales were turned. Charles was abandoned. The 
count was seized. We can dance. You may study. He 
is silent. Arthur was murdered. Stop. Stand still. Be 
careful. Be attentive. James was anxious. Truth is 
mighty. Wisdom exalts. Clouds overhang. Thunder 
roars. The lightning is vivid. Be wise. Awake. He 
may go. Study. You must write. Be gone. Arnold 
was a traitor. Esau was hated. It may rain. The clock 
strikes. The wind may rise. The storm may abate. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



39 



Write predicates to the following subjects ' — 

Indicative Mode. Besiegers, Swedes, French, Bona- 
parte, procession, ladies, enemy, skill, emperor, he, it, gov- 
ernment, conventions, war. 

Model. The besiegers were repulsed. 

Potential Mode. Fleet, column, congress, boys, sugar, 
toys, books, slates, ink, virtue, temperance, education, 
duty, mischief. 

Model. The fleet may be overtaken. A column must 
be erected. 

Convert the following infinitives into the imperative 
mode : — 

To write ; to study ; to play ; to sing ; to read ; to be- 
gin ; to delay ; to be active ; to be true ; to labor ; to 
travel ; to be acquitted ; to indicate ; to be happy ; to 
leave ; to wash ; to strike ; to love. 

Model. Write, or Write thou. 

Note. The subject comes after the verb in the imperative 
mode, and is usually omitted. 

Change the modes in your written examples, — the 
indicative to the potential, the potential to the indica- 
tive, and so on. 

Model. The besiegers were repulsed. The besiegers 
might be repulsed. Be ye repulsed. To be repulsed. 

Tense of the Verb. 

78. Tense denotes the time of an action or 
event. It may be either past, present, or future. 

(#.) Since time, considered absolutely, is an unbroken succes- 
eion of instants, we can speak of an event as past, present, or 



40 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



future, only in relation to some point to which all others shall 
refer. The point assumed for this purpose is the time when the 
action or event is mentioned, that is, spoken or written, and is 
called the time of the speaker; as, "Columbus sailed; (1846 
oeing the time of the speaker, and 1492 being the time of the 
event.) 

(b.) There are, therefore, two points of time to be considered 
in the simplest form of the verb, — the time of the speaker, and 
the time of the event. The time of the event may be simultane- 
ous with that of the speaker; as, " Edward writes." It is then 
called the present. The time of the event may be antecedent to 
that of the speaker ; as, " Edward wrote." It is then called the 
past. The time of the event may be subsequent to the time of the 
speaker; as, " Edward will write." It is then called the future. 

79. When a tense is simply past, present, or fu- 
ture, without any other limitation, it is called an ab- 
solute tense; as, "I sing," U I sang," "I shall sing." 

(a.) Besides relating to the time of the speaker, an event may 
be referred to another time specified in the sentence ; as, " Ed- 
ward was writing at noon." Here the act of writing is antecedent 
to the time of the speaker, but simultaneous with a specified time, 
11 at noon." 

(b.) As in the first relation, so in this, the time of an event 
may be simutaneous with, antecedent to, or subsequent to, the speci- 
fied time. 

(c.) This doable relation of the tenses will be best exhibited to 
the eye by the following table : — 

Point assumed. EvejiU 1st Rol. 



Time of 

the 
Speaker. 



Note. 



Point specified. 2d Rel. 
before noon, (ante.) 
at noon, . . (simul.) 
after noon, (subse.) 
before noon, (ante.) 
at noon, . . (simul.) 
after noon, (subse.) 
before noon, (ante.) 
at noon, . . (simul.) 
C after noon, (subse.) 

The event is referred to the points mentioned on the 



Edward was writing, . . (ante.) « 



Edward is writing, . . . (simul.) < 



Edward will be writing, (subs.) « 



right and left of it; thus, "was writing" is antecedent to the 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 41 

point assumed, (the time of the speaker,) but may be either ante- 
cedent to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to, the point speci- 
fied, (before, at, after noon.) 

80. When a tense refers to a time specified in 
the sentence, it is called a relative tense ; as, " Ed- 
ward had written before night;" " Edward will 
have written before noon" 

(a.) Relative tenses require an additional element of the sen- 
tence, and therefore cannot be fully discussed in this connection. 

(b.) Some tenses are always relative; as, "The ship had 
sailed before the stage arrived." Others may be either absolute 
or relative ; as, " He wrote ; " " He wrote in the morning." 

81. Each general division of time has two 
tenses, — one absolute, and one relative; as, "I 
love," " I have loved ; " " I loved," " I had loved j " 
" I shall love," " I shall have loved." 

(a.) Each absolute tense may be regarded as the present of its 
division; as, " I study, 5 ' (pres. of the pres. ;) " 1 studied," (pres. 
of the past ;) " I shall study " (pres. of the future.) In the same 
manner, each relative tense may be regarded as the perfect of its 
present; as, "I have studied," (perf. of " I study;") "I had 
studied," (perf. of "I studied;") "I shall have studied," (perf. 
of "I shall study.") 

(&.) Each perfect tense denotes the completion of an act in 
the time to which it refers, that is, its present. 

82. There are, therefore, six tenses, — three 
absolute, (the present, the past, and the future,) and 
three relative, (the present perfect, the past perfect, 
and the future perfect.) They may be thus ex- 
hibited : — 

r The Present Tense, which denotes present time. 
I. Pres. < The Present Perfect Tense, which denotes a 
' past time completed in the present. 
4# 



42 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

C The Past Tense, which denotes past time. 
II. Past. < The Past Perfect Tense, which denotes pat 

^ time completed in the past. 

C The Future Tense, which denotes future time. 
III. rut. < The Future Perfect Tense, which denotes a fu- 

^ ture time completed in the future. 
(0.) The future perfect relates, 1st, to another future time, 
and 2d, through that, to the time of the speaker. So the 
past perfect relates, 1st, to another past time, and 2d, through 
that, to the time of the speaker. But the present perfect relates 
to the present time, and, simultaneous ivith it, to the time of 
the speaker. Hence, the present perfect has but one point of 
reference, since the present time and the time of the speaker are 
the same. On this account, the present perfect loses one im- 
portant feature of a relative tense, namely, two different points 
of reference. Its relation to the present is, however, precisely- 
like that of the past perfect to the past, or the future perfect to the 
future. 

83. The absolute tenses (except the future) may 
have three forms ; — the common, which represents a 
customary act with indefinite time ; the progressive, 
which represents an unfinished act with definite 
time ; the emphatic, which represents an act re- 
peated, or stated with emphasis ; it is also used in 
interrogative sentences. The relative tenses have 
two forms, — the common and the progressive. 

84. The indicative mode has six tenses. 

EXAMPLES OF THE ABSOLUTE TENSES. 

C I write, [common form.) 
I. Fres. < J am writing, (progressive form.) 
> I do write, (emphatic form.) 
c\ wrote, (common.) 
II. Past. < I was writing, (progressive.) 
* I did write, (emphatic.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



43 



in. 



■p (l shall write, [common.) 

\ I shall be writing, (progressive.) 



EXAMPLES OF THE RELATIVE TENSES. 

, p p (I have written, (common.) 



have been writing, (progressive.) 

had w T ritten, (common.) 

had been writing, (progressive.) 



tt Pf p j I nac ^ WI "itten, (common.) 

TTT 77 / P / ^ shall have written, (common.) 

\ I shall have been w r riting, (progressive.) 
(a.) The emphatic form is confined to the indicative and im- 
perative modes ) and the progressive and emphatic, to the active 
voice. 

Note. Study Lesson XI., in the Appendix. 

85. The potential mode has four tenses, each 
having two forms. 



Divisions. 



Tenses. 



r Pres. Tense 



I. Pres.< 



II. Past. 



Pres. Perf. 



Past Tense. 



, Past Perf. 



EXAMPLES. 

Forms. 
I may, can, or must write, (com- 
mon form.) 
I may, can, or must be writing, 

(progressiv e form. ) 
I may, can, or must have written, 

(common form.) 
I may, can, or must have been 

writing, (progressiv e form. ) 
I might, could, would, or should 

write, (common form.) 
I might, could, would, or should 

be writing, (progressive farm.) 
I might, could, would, or should 

have written, (common form.) 
I might, could, would, or should 

have been writing, (prog. form. ) 



44 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

8G. Since the subjunctive is nothing more than 
the indicative or potential, under the influence of 
some particle denoting condition, (if though, unless, 
&c.,) it has the same tenses as the mode from which 
it is derived. 

87. The imperative has but one tense, with 
three forms. 

EXAMPLES. 

C Write, (common form.) 
Pres. Tense. < Be thou writing, (progressive form.) 
' Do thou write, (emphatic form.) 

88. The infinitive has two tenses, each having 
two forms. 

EXAMPLES. 
Division. Tenses. Forms. 

(Pres. Tense. [ To write ' ( common f orm <) 
j p \ t To be writing, (progressive form.) 

y C To have written, (common form.) 

rres. rerj. J r^ Q j iave ^ een wr iti n g, (progres- 

■ siveform.) 

89. The participle has three forms. 

EXAMPLES. 

Present . . . Writing. 

Past Written. 

Perfect. . . . Having written. 

(a.) Analogy would seem to require the following arrange- 
ment of the participles : — 

j p $ Pres. Tense. . . . Writing. 

(. Pres. Perf. .... Having written. 

t p t $ ^ ast Tense Written. 

Past Perf. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 45 

Note. The pupil should now study the several lessons on the 
verb found in the Appendix. He should then carefully per- 
form the following exercises : — 

Models for parsing the Verb. 

Analyze the sentences according to the models, Sec. II. 

The boy is diligent. 

Is is an irregular intransitive verb, (princi- 
pal parts, be, was, been,) in the indica- 
tive mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with its 
subject, " boy ; " according to Rule IV., 
" The verb must agree," &c. 

James should have come. 

Should have come is an irregular intransitive verb, in the 
potential mode, past perfect tense, third 
person, singular number, and agrees 
with its subject, " James ; " according to 
Rule IV. 

Depart. 

Depart is a regular intransitive verb, in the im- 
perative mode, present tense, second 
person, singular number, and agrees 
with thou understood ; * according to 
Rule IV. 

Children should obey their parents. 

Should obey .... is a regular transitive verb, (principal 
parts, obey, obeyed, obeyed,) active voice, 

* When the subject, or any other part o r a proposition, is omit- 
ted, it is said to be understood. 



46 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

potential mode, past tense,* 1 third person, 
plural number, and agrees with its sub- 
ject, " children ; " according to Rule IV. 

Note. The relation of the transitive verb to its object will be 
fully explained in a subsequent section. 

He is deceived. 

Is deceived is a regular passive verb, (transitive 

verb, passive voice,) (principal part?, 
deceive, deceived, deceived,) in the in- 
dicative mode, present tense, third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with its 
subject, " he ; " according to Rule IV. 
Note. The uses of the subjunctive, infinitive, and the partici- 
ples, will be explained hereafter. 

Exercise 14. 

Write subjects to the following verbs : — 
Teach, instruct, learn, speak, say, utter, weep, lament, 
rejoice, bloom, laugh, move, bring, obey, try, bite, dance, 
fight, praise, censure, adorn, wound, punish, devour, croak, 
whistle, amuse, disturb, be committed. 

Let the first twelve be in the indicative mode, two 
in each tense. 

Model. 

Pre*. [ John teaches - Past Tense. | He learned - 

( James instructs. ( We spoke. 

Let the next twelve be in the potential mode, three 
in each tense. (See model above.) — Write the re- 
mainder in the imperative mode. — Give the infinitive 
and participles to ten of the above verbs. 

* More properly, "should obey" denotes a universal obliga- 
tion, without reference to time. 



analysis of sentences. 47 

Exercise 15. — Miscellaneous. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences, apply- 
ing the four rides which are used in the construction 
of the subject and predicate. (See the preceding 
models for analyzing and parsing.) 

John was a disciple. Jesus was betrayed. David is 
called the psalmist. You can learn. He will be writing. 
He had been defeated. Stop. Be active. Become a sol- 
dier. They should be industrious. He might have been 
captured. George may have returned. Do be still. 
Henry will have been planting. I spoke. Do stay. 

Note. If the preceding exercises should not be sufficient to 
make the pupil perfectly familiar with the properties and con- 
struction of the subject and predicate, they should be multiplied, 
at the discretion of the teacher. It is all important that these 
two elements of the sentence be perfectly understood before 
proceeding farther. 



SECTION V. 

THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. — FIRST SUBORDINATE 
ELEMENT. 

90. It has been seen. (Sec. III.) that the subject 
is susceptible of certain inflections. (41,) which 
indicate its number, person, and gender. These 
changes are properly called modifications of the sub- 
ject, since they restrict its application to some per- 
son or thing affected by one or more of these 
properties. , 



48 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

91. It is often necessary to restrict the applica- 
tion of the subject, by referring to other properties 
which cannot be indicated by inflection. The 
method pursued in all languages is the same, 
namely, to add to the subject such word or words 
as shall designate the property required ; as, " Birds 
fly;" "Black birds fly;" "Canary birds fly;" 
"Large birds fly." 

(a.) Some nouns are sufficiently definite without additional 
words; such as proper nouns, — William, Philadelphia; many 
of the abstract nouns, — goodness, virtue, vice; many nouns 
denoting substance, — as, grass, wood. 

(b.) Pronouns being used to denote the relation of the subject 
to the speaker, or referring to nouns which have before been 
introduced and sufficiently limited, seldom receive additional 
words. 

92. All such additional words are called modifi- 
ers, because they modify, limit, or restrict, the appli- 
cation of the subject. 

93. The modifiers of the subject, or of the noun 
in any of its relations, form a new element of the 
sentence, called the adverbial element. 

94. The subject considered apart from the ad- 
jective element, is called the grammatical subject, 
or simply the subject. 

95. The subject taken with the words which 
limit it, is called the complex or logical subject. 

(a.) The adjective element generally answers the questions, 
What ? What kind ? How many f Whose ? 

96. All modifiers of the subject, or of the noun 
in any of its relations, are used to restrict its appli- 
cation. This may be done, — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 49 

(a.) Without affecting any of its properties ; as, 
u two men ; " " these men ; " — 

(6.) By designating some property ; as, " good 
men ;" — 

(c.) By identifying it; as, "Paul the apostle;" 
u Peter the hermit ;•" — 

(d.) By representing it as an object possessed; 
as, "David's harp." 

97. The first two limitations are effected by 
adjective words ; the second two, by nouns or pro- 
nouns. 

1. — ADJECTIVE WORDS. 

98. All adjective words (articles, adjectives, and 
participles) are divided into two classes, — limiting 
and qualifying. 

99. Limiting adjectives are used to restrict the 
application of the noun, without expressing any of 
its properties ; as, " ten commandments ; " " each 
lesson." 

100. Qualifying adjectives are used to restrict the 
application of the noun to a class of objects which 
possess a certain property in common; as, "good 
men ; " " idle boys ; " " tall trees." 

(a.) An unlimited noun is taken in the widest extent of its 
application; as, "Horses run." Here "horses" applies to the 
whole race, and embraces every possible property of the horse. 
A noun is said to be limited in the extent of its application when 
the number of individuals included in it is diminished. Thus 
"horses" embraces a greater number of individuals than "sixty 
horses" or "white horses." "Sixty" excludes all above that 
number, but may include those of any description whatever ; 
whereas "white" excludes all of any other color, and embraces 
those only which possess that property in common. 

5 



50 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

101. Among limiting adjectives are reckoned 
the article, pronominal adjectives, numerals, and those 
which express some circumstance of place, time, 
cause, or manner. 

Note. See Appendix, Lesson VII. 

Exercise 16. 

Apply limiting adjectives to the subjects of the 
following sentences : — 

Horse neighs. Arts are improved. Citizens complain. 
Business is completed. Soldier stood. Dog ran. Cloud 
is black. Hen is dead. Duck swam. Storm did abate. 
Wind blew. Rain fell. Men were captured. Walk was 
taken. Book is useful. Houses are built. Ride is pleas- 
ant. 

Model. That horse neighs. 

Write twelve entire sentences, applying limiting ad- 
jectives to the subjects. 

102. Among qualifying adjectives are reckoned, 
1st, all those adjectives which express any property 
of the noun ; and 2d, the several participles. 

(ft.) A qualifying adjective or participle is an attribute, (16.) 
It is said to be used as a modifier when it is assumed of a noun, 
as a predicate when it is affirmed of it. 

(&.) A limiting adjective does not properly express any attri- 
bute of the noun, and consequently is seldom compared or used as 
a predicate. 

Note. Study Lesson VII., in the Appendix, and then per- 
form the following exercise : — 

Exercise 17. 

Apply qualifying adjectives to the subjects of the 
following propositions : — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 51 

Maxim is given. Scriptures teach. Men desire. Re- 
proof hardens. Habits should be avoided. Counsels 
were given. Character shines. Cottage stood. 

Write predicates to the following subjects, limiting 
each subject by some qualifying adjective or parti- 
ciple : — 

Lady, paper, lord, cousin, light, darkness, ambassador, 
army, commissioner, tiger, traitor, tutor, pupil, window, 
cellar, chamber, chancellor, monk, friar, countess. 
Model. The good lady assisted. 

Write subjects to the following predicates, and let 
each be limited by a limiting and a qualifying adjec- 
tive. 

Was prepared ; was made ; was served up ; had scat- 
tered ; is desirable ; were tamed ; is delightful ; had ar- 
rived ; can jump ; might have slept ; did eat ; could fight ; 
was avoided ; could have been stopped ; may be upset • 
was emptied ; sailed ; was prostrated. 

Model. That sumptuous feast was prepared. 

103. Adjectives used as modifiers should be 
parsed by the following rule. (See Rule III.) 

Rule V. An adjective or participle used 
as a modifier ', belongs to the noun or pronoun 
which it limits. 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Tall oalcs bend. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition, (27.) 

Oaks is the subject, because it is that of which 

the action "bend" is affirmed. 



52 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Bend is the predicate, because it is the action 

affirmed of " oaks." 

Oaks (the subject) is limited by " tall," an adjective ele- 
ment of the first class, denoting the 
kind {tall) of oak. 

Tall oaks is the complex subject. 

Tall is a qualifying adjective, of the positive 

degree, (compared, tall, taller, tallest,) 
and is used as a modifier of the sub- 
ject ; according to Rule V., " An ad- 
jective or participle used as a modifier, 
belongs to the noun or pronoun which 
it limits.'" 

This truth is clear. 

Note. Analyze as in the previous example. 

This is a limiting adjective, (not compared,) 

and is a modifier of the subject ; ac- 
cording to Rule V. 

Note. Clear is also an adjective, but it is used as the predicate 
of the proposition, (not a modifier,) and is parsed by Rule III. 

Bengal tigers are ferocious. 

Bengal is a limiting adjective, denoting place, 

(not compared,) and is used as a 
modifier of the subject ; according to 
Eule V. 

Exercise 18. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the ad- 
jectives : — 

Subsequent voyages were made. The third expedition 
was unfortunate. Severe laws were passed. These in- 
scriptions were copied. Modern history should be studied. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 53 

An erroneous opinion prevailed. A republican govern- 
ment was established. Thirty men were captured. 

II. — NOUNS OR PRONOUNS. 

104. The subject may be limited by a noun or 
pronoun used to explain it by designating its office, 
rank, character, or otherwise identifying it; as, 
" Peter the hermit preached the first crusade." 

(a.) The limiting noun or pronoun must represent the same 
person or thing as the limited noun. 

(b.) The limiting noun denotes some property (office, rank, 
&c.) of the subject, and is here used as an assumed property, 
corresponding to the predicate-nominative, just as the adjective 
or participle, denoting an assumed property, corresponds to the 
predicate-adjective or participle. 

105. A noun or pronoun thus used is said to be 
in apposition with the noun which it limits, and is 
to be parsed by the following rule : — 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to 
identify another noun or pronoun, is put by 
apposition in the same case; as, " His brother 
George was absent." 

( a.) When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally 
agrees with the limited, in number, gender, and case. (60, «.) 

Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 

King Charles was beheaded. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 
King . is the subject.* 

* The definitions may be omitted when the pupil becomes 
fumiliar witn them. 

5* 



54 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Was beheaded is the predicate. 

King is limited by "Charles," an adjective ele- 
ment of the first class, used to identify the 
"king. 1 ' "King Charles" is the complex 
subject. 

Charles is a proper noun, of the third person, sin- 
gular number, nominative case, and is used 
to identify " king ; " according to Eule VI., 
" A noun or pronoun," &c. (See 105, a.) 

Exercise 19. 

Analyze the following sentences, parsing the nouns 
ill apposition : — 

The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. Paul 
the apostle was a martyr. The emperor Nero was a 
cruel tyrant. Milton the poet was blind. The disciple 
John was beloved. The martyr Stephen was stoned. 
The great navigator Columbus was maltreated. Henry 
the scholar was crowned king. 

Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a 
noun in apposition. 

Note. Let the pupil review the declension of nouns and 
personal pronouns, (Lesson III., in the Appendix.) 

106. The subject may be limited by a noun or 
pronoun which represents it as an object of posses- 
sion; as, "Henrijs book fell." 

(«.) This relation does not always denote possession. It may 
denote the relation of persons; as, u William's cousin; " — or the 
relation of the doer to the thing done; as, li Solomon's Temple ; " 
— or the relation of a whole to its parts ; as, " a horse's head; " 
44 the dog's foot." 

(£.) The possessive pronouns mine^ thine, his, hers, ours, yours, 
and theirs^ are used as nouns, and hence may be employed as 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 55 

predicates, when we wish to affirm (not assume) possession ; as, 
" The book is mine; " " The pen is yours." 

107. A noun or pronoun thus used to limit the 
subject is parsed by the following rule : — 

Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit 
another noun by denoting possession, must be 
in the possessive case ; as, " Stephen's courage 
failed." 

Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

His hand trembles. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 
Hand ... is the subject. (Why ?) 
Trembles is the predicate. (Why?) 
His hand is the complex subject. (Why ?) 
Hand . . is limited by " his," an adjective element of the 

first class, denoting whose hand. 
His .... is a personal pronoun, third person, singular 

number, possessive case, and is the modifier of 

" hand ; " according to Rule VIL 

Exercise 20. 

Analyze the following sentences, parsing the modi- 
fier of the subject : — 

The rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was 
broken. Our lesson is easy. My task is completed. 
William's farm is productive. Eufus's garden is watered. 

Write twelve sentences limiting the subject by a 
noun or pronoun in the possessive case. 

108. The adjective element, by an ellipsis of the 
noun to which it belongs, often becomes the sub- 



58 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

ject of the proposition ; as, " The good may err ; " 
" This is the book : " " Many will be disappointed.'*' 

(«.) In such cases, the adjective is said to be used as a noun, 
(33, a.) Thus, in the first example above, " good " is an adjec- 
tive used as a noun, third person, plural number, &c, and is the 
subject of " may err." Let the pupil write examples of this kind. 

EXEBCISE 21. 

Analyze and parse the following miscellaneous 
examples : — 

Three birds flew. The man awoke. Good food was 
provided. Every soldier escaped. All men are mortal. 
Twenty days have passed. Your lesson is easy. Wis- 
dom's ways are pleasant. The king's council might have 
been able. John the Baptist was beheaded. The planet 
Venus has risen. Sirius, the dog-star, is visible. Boston, 
the capital, is populous. The goddess Discord was 
offended. Beautiful plants were sold. Old iron is wanted. 
Becket, the archbishop, was considered a martyr. The 
east wind is disagreeable. A winter scene was repre- 
sented. A sun-burnt urchin came in. The merry dance 
commenced. 

Write twenty sentences illustrating the four Jcinds 
of modifiers. (96, a, b, c, d.) 



SECTION VI. 

THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. — SECOND SUBORDINATE 

ELEMENT. 

109. By certain inflections (Section IV.) the 
predicate can be made to indicate properties not 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 5< 

essential to it as predicate. These are called modi- 
fications of the predicate, because they restrict its 
application to a certain time or in a certain manner. 

110. When it is necessary to restrict the appli- 
cation of the predicate by referring to properties 
which cannot be indicated by inflections, other 
words (as with the subject) must be added. 

111. All such words are called modifiers of the 
predicate, (92.) 

112. The predicate, considered apart from the 
words that limit it, is called the grammatical predi- 
cate, or simply the predicate. 

113. When taken in connection with the words 
which limit it, it is called the complex or logical 
predicate. 

114. When the predicate is a noun, (36, 60,) it 
may be limited, like the subject, by an adjective 
element, (see Section V. ; ) as, " Francis is an in- 
dustrious boy." 

Note. Let the pupil write examples modifying the predicate- 
nominative by either of the four species of modifiers mentioned in 
the last section. This construction will need no further illus- 
tration. 

115. When the predicate is an adjective, it may 
be limited by an adverbial element; as, "He was 
awake early." 

Note. This element will be treated of in the next section. 

116. When the predicate is a verb, it maybe 
limited either by an adverbial or an objective ele- 
ment, or both ; as, " The boy studied his lesson 
carefully." 



58 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

L— SINGLE OBJECT. 

117. The objective element is that which is 
used to complete the meaning of a transitive verb, 
(see Appendix;) as, "He opened (what?) a booJc, 
— a Jc?iife, — the door, — his hand, — his eyes" &c. 

118. The objective element becomes the subject 
when the transitive verb assumes the passive form ; 
as, "Henry struck William;" " William was struck 
by Henry." 

(a.) The objective element answers the question Whom? or 
What? as, "He loves (whom?) George;''' "They broke 
(what?) the zee." 

(b.) The noun or pronoun used as the object has the same 
modifications (Sec. III.) of number, gender, and person, as the 
subject. 

119. The following rule should be applied in 
parsing the object : — 

Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as 
the object of a transitive verb or its partici- 
ples, must be in the objective case ; as, " We 
paid him." 

Note. Review the declension of nouns and personal pro- 
nouns, Appendix, Lesson III. 

Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Ccesar defeated Pompey. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Oasar is the subject. 

Defeated is the predicate. 

Defeated . is limited by " Pompey," an objective ele- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 59 

ment of the first class, denoting whom 
Csesar defeated. 

Defeated Pompey is the complex predicate. 

Pompey is a proper noun, of the third person, 

singular number, masculine gender, ob- 
jective case, and is the object of " de- 
feated ; " according to Rule VIII. 

Exercise 22. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
object : — 

Brutus killed Csesar. Heat overcomes me. The dog 
pursued a fox. The lion ate a sheep. He views the 
stars. We built a house. The ink soils the carpet. Jo- 
sephus wrote a history. William conquered England. 
Alfred defeated the Danes. Bring a book. Repeat the 
lesson. He might have been leading the army. 

Write subjects and objects to the following verbs: — 

Lead, praise, restrain, know, fear, see, love, admonish, 
bring, correct, frighten, pursue, break, torment, perplex, 
annoy, betray, sing, open, displace, equip, defend, punish, 
leave, desire. 

Change the verbs of your written sentences from 
the active to the passive form. 

Model. Abraham led Isaac. Isaac was led by Abra- 
ham. 

II. — DOUBLE OBJECT. 

Object and Attribute. 

120. Some verbs are followed by two objects, 
— one denoting some person or thing, and the other 



60 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

some attribute (15) of it ; as, " They appointed him 

president" 

(a.) "President" is an attribute of "him," denoting office. 
(See note at the bottom of page 17.) 

121. Instead of a substantive, an adjective or 
verbal attribute may follow the object of such 
verbs. 

EXAMPLES. 

/•an officer,. . (substantive attribute.) 
They made the man < jealous, . . . (adjective attribute.) 
v labor,* .... (verbal attribute.) 

122. When such verbs assume the passive form, 
the object generally becomes the subject, and the 
attribute remains as a predicate. 

EXAMPLES. 

/■ an officer, . . (substantive attribute.) 
The man was made < jealous, .... (adjective attribute.) 
\ to labor, . . . (verbal attribute.) 

(a.) It not unfrequently happens, however, that the attribute, 
or second object, becomes the subject; as, " Jin officer was made 
of the man" 

(b.) A few verbs only can take, besides an object, a substantite 
attribute in the objective. These are, make, appoint, elect, create, 
constitute, render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, 
reckon, and some others. 

( c.) The number which may take an adjective or verbal attri- 
bute is much greater. 

(d.) It should be observed, respecting either form of the above 
attributes, — 

* The verbal attribute may take the form of the infinitive; as, 
" I heard him speak ; " — or that of the participle ; as, " I heard 
him speaking." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 61 

(1) That they axe predicated, (not assumed.) Compare with 
the example (121) the following, in which the same attributes are 
assumed : — " They made the man, an officer " i. e. " who was an 
officer; ' r " They made a jealous man; " "They made a laboring 
man." 

(2.) When the verb is in the active voice, they are predicated 
of the object, not the subject, of the verb. 

(3.) That the verb (in the active voice) performs the office of 
a transitive verb, governing the first object, and, at the same time, 
becomes a kind of copula, making that object a subject, and the 
second object its predicate. This latter function of the verb 
is retained when it takes the passive form. — See examples, 
(122.) 

(e.) The infinitive to be, or the participle being, with as, 
is often placed between the object and its attribute ; as, " We 
considered him to be too young," or "as being too young." 



Direct and Indirect Objects, 

123. There is another class of verbs followed 

by two objects, — one denoting some person or 

thing, and the other, that to or from which the 

action tends. The former is called the direct, and 

the latter the indirect object; as, "He taught me 

[indirect] grammar" [direct]; "He asked me a 

question," 

(a.) The indirect object is generally said to be governed by 
some preposition understood. It will be more fully discussed 
under the corresponding head in the next chapter. 

124. When the verb assumes the passive form, 
the direct object should become the subject, the 
indirect object remaining in the objective case ; as. 
" Grammar was taught me by him." 

(«.) Sometimes, however, the indirect object becomes the 

6 



62 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

subject, leaving the direct object in the objective case after the 
passive verb ; as, " I" was taught grammar by him." 

(&.) Some intransitive verbs take after them an object of a 
kindred signification; as, " He sang a song;" "He played a 
game." Such verbs may take, also, an indirect object; as, "I 
played him a tune ; " " We struck Mm a blow." 

(c.) The following are some of the verbs which take a direct 
and indirect object: — buy, sell, play, sing, find, get, lend, draw, 
send, make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, 
present, throw, carry, ask, shoic, order, promise, refuse, deny, 
provide. 

Exercise 24. 

Write thirty sentences, taking any of the verbs for 
predicates mentioned in 122, (b.) or 124, (c.) 

Model. They appointed George secretary. 

Change the verbs into the passive form. 



SECTION VII. 

THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. — THIRD SUBORDINATE 
ELEMENT. 

125. It has been seen (Sec. VI.) that certain 
verbs (transitive) require the addition of one or 
more words to complete the sense. Any verb or 
adjective may take one or more additional words 
to denote some circumstance of place, time, cause, 
or manner. These additions constitute the adverb- 
ial element. 

(a.) Such additions are not, like the object, indispensable to 
complete the sense. 

126. The adverbial element^ in its simplest 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 63 

state, is expressed by a class of words called Ad- 
verbs. 

Note. Let the pupil study Lesson XII., in the Appendix. 
I. — ADVERBS DENOTING PLACE. 

127. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
of place ; as, " Come hither ; " " I see him yonder" 

128. Adverbs of place are used to denote three 
relations, — at a place, (Where?) — from a place, 
(Whence?) — to a place^ (Whither?) 

Note. Wldther and whence are now seldom used 
II. — ADVERBS DENOTING TIME. 

129. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
denoting time ; as, " He went yesterday." 

130. The time denoted by the adverb is always 
simultaneous with that of the event. Hence, in re- 
lation to the time of the speaker, (78, a.) an adverb 
may denote a time present, past, ox future ; as, u We 
are now walking ; " " We walked yesterday ; " " We 
shall walk hereafter." 

(a.) Some adverbs have no reference to either of the three di- 
visions of time. Hence they denote time absolute ; as, always, 
whenever. 

131. Adverbs of time denote either a point, du- 
ration, or frequency of time, answering the ques- 
tions, When 2 How long 1 How often 1 

III. — ADVERBS OF CAUSE OR SOURCE. 

132. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
of cause ; as, " Why did he leave ? " 



64 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) There are properly no adverbs which denote a cause; 
they rather inquire for one. 



IV. — ADVERBS DENOTING MANNER. 

133. The predicate may be limited by adverbs 
denoting manner ; as, " The water flows gently" 

( a.) It has been seen that mode is that property of the verb, 
(70,) which shows the manner of an assertion. The manner of 
the attribute asserted is shown by means of adverbs. 

(&.) Adverbs of manner embrace a large class, ending in ly, 
formed from adjectives denoting quality. They generally an- 
swer the questions, How ? How much ? 

(c.) Adverbs answering the question, How? denote quality ; 
those answering the question, How much? denote quantity or 
degree. 

134. Besides those enumerated, there is another 
class of adverbs which show the manner of the 
assertion, not the attribute. Hence they are called 
modal adverbs, since they affect the manner of the 
assertion, (70, a.) and not that of the attribute) 
as, " Astrology is not a science; 7 ' "The sun had 
scarcely set." 

(a.) Adverbs of mode affect the degree of certainty with 
which an attribute is affirmed. Beginning with denial, there are 
modal adverbs applicable to the several degrees of doubt, uncer- 
tainty, 'possibility, probability, and certainty; as, " My brother 
will not come ; " " Perhaps he will come;" " Possibly he may 
come ; " " He will probably come ; ". " He will assuredly come." 

( b.) The predicate adjective or participle, following copulative 
verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at the 
same time, it denotes some property (35, t.) of the subject ; as, 
The boy was made sick." 

Note. For a list of t!*e different classes of adverbs, see Ap- 
pendix, Lesson XII. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 65 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

135, When it is necessary to show that one 
predicate represents a quality or an action in a 
higher or lower degree than another with which 
it is compared, the comparison is effected by means 
of an intervening adverb; as, " George learned his 
lesson sooner than James learned his." 

(a.) A comparison of one predicate with another may also 
be indicated by means of connectives denoting comparison. 

136. Adverbs should be parsed by the follow- 
ing rule : — 

Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, 
participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Light moves rapidly. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Light is the subject, because it is that of which 

the action " moves n is affirmed. 

Moves is the predicate, because it is the action 

affirmed of " light." 
Moves rapidly is the complex predicate, because it is the 
grammatical predicate, with all its limita- 
tions. 
Moves is limited by " rapidly," an adverbial ele- 
ment of the first class, denoting how light 
moves. 
Rapidly .... is an adverb of manner, of the positive de- 
6* 



66 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

gree, (compared, rapidly, more rapidly, most rapidly,) 
and limits " moves ; " according to Rule IX., "Adverbs 
limit, &c.'" 

Exercise 24. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
adverbs : — 

Human prudence should be rightly understood. The 
stage started early. Mary writes beautifully. The wind 
blows fiercely. We easily forget our own misdeeds. W& 
cannot view the sun steadily. One can easily imagine 
himself a prince. The sun shines brightly. The water 
flows there. Perhaps he will do it. He cannot do it. 
Write carefully. Study attentively. Come here. 

Write fifteen sentences, and limit each predicate 
by an adverb. 

Model for all the Elements united. 

Conlsant boasting always betrays incapacity. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Boasting is the subject. (Why?) 

Betrays is the predicate. (Why?) 

The subject is limited by " constant," an adjective 

element of the first class, denoting a 
continued habit. 
Constant boasting is the complex subject. (Why ?) (95.) 

Betrays is limited, first, by " incapacity," an 

objective element of the first class, de- 
noting what is betrayed. 
Betrays is also modified by " always," an ad- 
verbial element of the first class, denot- 
ing time absolute. (See 130, a.) 
Always betrays incapacity . . is the complex predicate. (113.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 07 

Order of Parsing the ^Elements. 

1st. The subject. — 2d. The predicate. — 3d. 
The adjective element. — 4th. The objective ele- 
ment. — 5th. The adverbial element. 

137. The five elements of the sentence (8) may 
be thus represented : — 

Constant First Subordinate. 

boasting ) . 4 . 

> Principal. 

BETRAYS j l 

incapacity Second Subordinate. 

always Third Subordinate. 

(a.) To exhibit the class and connection of the elements in a 
general way, they may be best represented by a formula in which 
S shall stand for the subject, P for the predicate, and Adj., Obj., 
and Adv. for the adjective, objective, and adverbial elements. 
The connection of the subordinate elements with the principal 
is indicated by the sign of addition, and the class of each by the 
figure underneath. Thus . — 

Adj. + S : P-f-Obj. + Adv. 
Class. 11111 

Exehcise 25. 

Analyze the following examples, and parse each 
word. Show which have five elements, and which 
have not. 

The pupil performed the task correctly. The ambitious 
often deceive themselves. The slothful seldom respect 
themselves. No man should return an injury. Idleness 
begets poverty. Animals run. Some animals run swiftly. 
The birds devour the cherries greedily. Virtue is often 
neglected. Socrates the philosopher was condemned. 

Write five sentences containing five elements ; — 



OS ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

five, containing four ; — five, containing three; — and 
five others, containing only two. 



SECTION VIII. 

INTERJECTIONS, AND THE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

138. There are certain words used simply to 
express the emotions of the speaker, which do not 
form any part of a sentence ; as, oh ! alas ! ah ! 
such words are called Interjections, because they are 
thrown in between the parts of a sentence. 

(a.) Interjections have no dependence upon other words, and 
therefore need no further illustration. 

139. It is often necessary to designate the per- 
son to whom language is addressed. When this is 
done, his name or title is introduced, generally, at 
the beginning of the sentence, but has no gram- 
matical relation to the parts of it ; as, " Father, I 
have returned ■ " "Sir, defeat is impossible. 7 ' 

140. A noun or pronoun thus used is said to be 
in the nominative case independent. 

141. The interjection and the nominative case 
independent may be parsed by the following 
rule : — 

Rule X. The nominative case independ- 
ent, and the interjection, have no grammatical 
relation to the other parts of the sentence. 



analysis of sentences. g9 

Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

Oh! father , I want that lily. 

I . ... is the subject. (Why ?) 

Want, is the predicate. (Why?) 

Want . is limited by " that lily," denoting what is wanted. 

Oh ! . is an interjection, having no dependence upon the 

other parts of the sentence ; according to Rule X. 
Father is a common noun, of the second person, singular 

number, masculine gender, and nominative case 

independent ; according to Hule X. 

Exercise 26. 

Write ten sentences, each containing a nominative 
case independent, an interjection, or both. Analyze 
and parse according to the model. 



SECTION IX. 

COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

142. It has already been shown, that the subject 
and predicate may become complex by adding 
other words to them, giving rise to the distinction 
of grammatical and logical subject or predicate. 

(a.) It should be distinctly understood, that all the other ele- 
ments of a sentence, however long it may be, must depend upon 
the subject and predicate. 

143. The subordinate elements, also, may be- 



70 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

come complex, giving rise to a similar distinction 
of grammatical and logical. 

EXAMPLES. 

Simple Elements. 

Adj. Sub. Pred. Obj. Adv. 

'Careless .... boys] .... I will finish . , . . lessons .... quickly I 

Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 

Complex Elements. 

Comp. Adj. Sub. Pred. Comp. Obj. Comp. Adv. 

1 Very careless . . boys! . . I will finish . . their lesson . . too quickly. [ 

Complex Subject. Complex Predicate. 

144. In a complex element, the simple element, 
on which the others depend, is the basis of it. 
Thus " careless" is the basis of " very careless;" 
" lessons" is the basis of " their lessons;" and 
" quickly " is the basis of " very quickly." 

145. The simple element which is joined to the 
basis is dependent upon it, and hence is said to be 
subordinate to it ; as, " He purchased a good farm." 

(a.) "Good," in this example, is subordinate to "farm." 
This element, in turn, may become the basis to another element 
subordinate to itself; as, " He purchased a very good farm." 

(6.) This connection of elements may be continued indefinite- 
ly, forming different degrees of subordination. 

146. Complex elements are formed by uniting 
two or more dissimilar simple elements ; the one 
being principal, and the other subordinate to it. 

Besides being dissimilar in rank, (i. e. one principal and the 
other subordinate,) 

(a.) Two elements, dissimilar in nume^ may be united, — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. "1 

An adverbial to an adjective element ; as, " An exceedingly 
beautiful river ornaments the town;" "One treated hospitably 
should return the favor; " — 

An adjective to an objective element ; as, " My uncle drove a 
spirited horse." 

(b.) Two elements, similar in name, but dissimilar in office, 
may be united, — 

An adverb of quantity or degree to an adverb of time, place, or 
manner; as, "We dined unusually late;" "He has gone too 
far ; " " The boat moves very rapidly ; " — 

An adjective element denoting quality, number, order, &c, to 
another adjective element denoting office (104) or possession, 
(106 ;) as, " John, the beloved disciple, was banished ; " " TJie 
good man's hope will not disappoint him." 

(c.) Two elements, similar in name and office, but dissimilar 
in their particular application, may be united, — 

A noun in the possessive case to a noun in the possessive ; as, 
" Jacob's brother's son; " — 

A noun in apposition to a noun in apposition; as, " His brother 
David the painter ." 

In the first example, " brother's " limits " son," and " Jacob's " 
limits "brother's." In the second, "David" limits "brother," 
and " painter " limits " David." 

147. The basis of a complex element deter- 
mines its name and class ; as, " Birds fly very 
swiftly" 

(a.) "Swiftly," the basis of "very swiftly," shows the com- 
plex element to be an adverbial element of the first class. 

148. An adjective is often made subordinate, not 
to another adjective or noun, alone, but to both 
united; as, "An active young soldier.*'* 

(«.) When a limiting and a qualifying adjective both belong 
to the same noun, the former should be placed first; as, "all 
good men ; " " this little book ; " " the besieged city." 

(&.) The articles a and the should stand first with all adjec- 
tives, except m,any and such; as, "many a flower ; " "such a 
book." 



72 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Model for analyzing complex Elements. 

The Icing issued his decree. 

It is a simple sentence. 

King is the subject. 

Issued is the predicate. 

The subject is limited by "the." "The king" is the 
complex subject. 

The predicate is limited by " his decree," — a complex 
objective element, of the first class, denot- 
ing ivhat was issued. " Issued his decree " 
is the complex predicate. 

Decree, . . , . the basis of the complex objective element, 
is limited by "his," — a simple adjective 
element of the first class, denoting zohose 
decree. Parse "decree" by Rule VIII. , 
and " his " by Rule VII. 
Note. Each subordinate element may be complex, and should 

be analyzed in the same manner. 

Exercise 27. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

His oldest brother's son was sick. Alfred the Great 
subdued the Danish king. Peter the hermit preached the 
first crusade. William the Conqueror defeated Harold the 
Saxon king. Excess produces premature old age. Touch 
it very lightly. Avarice often produces contrary effects. 
Interest speaks all languages. It acts all parts. Guard 
well your own heart. The shade protected the weary pil- 
grim. Labor disgraces no man. Joseph, Jacob's favorite 
son, was sold. Moses received the ten commandments. 

Write ten sentences of your own, making either ele- 
ment complex. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 73 

SECTION X. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

149. In the preceding section, it has been 
shown that dissimilar elements may be united by 
making one subordinate (146) to another. It is 
often necessary to unite similar elements by mak- 
ing them coordinate with each other. 

150. Two or more elements are said to be co- 
ordinate with each other, when they sustain the 
same rank in the sentence, and are placed in the 
same relation to some other element ; as, " John 
and James attended school. ?? 

(a.) "John" and "James" are both subjects of " attend ;" 
they hold the same rank (both subjects) in the sentence, and are 
similar in construction ; they are hence called coordinate, which 
means, of the same rank. In the sentence " Johns brother 
James attended school," "John's" and "James" are subordi- 
nate to "brother." 

151. When two elements are coordinate with 
each other, they form one compound element ; as, 
"George reads and writes." 

152. An element may be both complex and 
compound; as, "George reads the papers and writes 
letters." 

153. A subordinate element of the first class is 
joined to its basis immediately. (14, a., 144.) 

154. Coordinate elements of any class are 
joined to each other by a peculiar class of words 
called Conjunctions. 

(a.) It will be readily perceived that two elements thus con- 

r 



74 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

nected must either be both principal or both subordinate ; and, in 
either case, they must be of the same name, that is, both subjects, 
both predicates, both adjective elements, &c. So, again, the 
adjective or adverbial elements thus connected must be of the 
same species; both must express quality or possession, &c. 

155. Connectives are divided into two general 
classes — coordinate and subordinate; so named 
from the elements which they unite. 

156. Coordinate conjunctions are used to con- 
nect similar elements, (149;) subordinate connec- 
tives are used to connect dissimilar elements. 

Note. Subordinate connectives will be treated of in their 
proper place. 

157. Coordinate conjunctions are divided into 
three classes : — 

(a.) Copulative, or those which add the parts to 
each other ; as, and, also, as well as ; — 

(b.) Adversative, or those which show that the 
parts are opposed or contrasted in meaning ; as, but, 
still, yet, nevertheless. 

(c.) Alternative, or those which offer or deny a 
choice between two things ; as, or, nor, else. 

158. Coordinate conjunctions may be used to 
connect, — 

(a.) Two or more similar principal elements ; — 
subjects ; as, " Mercury and Venus first appear; " — 
predicates ; as, " This ancient city was captured and 
burned.* 9 

(b.) Two or more similar subordinate elements; 
— adjective elements ; as, " A wise and virtuous prince 
ascended the throne;" — objective elemep.ts ; as, 
"Hercules killed a lion and a boar; v — adverbial 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 75 

elements ; as, " He labored faithfully and success- 
My" 

159. The parts of a compound element have a 
common relation to the rest of the sentence. 

Note. Coordinate conjunctions, used to connect subordinate 
elements, must always unite those of the same degree of sub- 
ordination (145, b.) ; as, " He sent Samuel, his first and only son." 
" Son " is subordinate to " Samuel," and "first" and "only" are 
alike subordinate to " son ; " that is, they are of the same degree 
of subordination. 

160. The following is the rule for parsing coor- 
dinate conjunctions : — 

Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used 
to connect similar elements. 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers. 

It is a sentence having a compound subject.* 

Socrates and Plato form the compound subject, because 
they are united by " and," and have a 
common (159) predicate, "were phi- 
losophers." 

The subject is not limited. 

The predicate ... is limited by " distinguished," an ad- 
jective element of the first class, used 
to describe " philosophers." 

And is a coordinate conjunction, (copula- 
tive,) and connects the two simple sub- 
jects ; according to Rule XL 

* A sentence having but one of its elements compound, is not 
properly a simple sentence, (27,) nor is it strictly a compound (29) 
sentence. It may, not improperly, be called a partial compound, 
since one of its parts is compound. All such sentences may be 
converted into complete compounds, as will be shown hereafter 



/O ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Note. Two subjects united by a coordinate conjunction, do 
not form a compound subject, unless the predicate may belong to 
each when taken separately; as, " Socrates was a distinguished 
philosopher," and " Plato was a distinguished philosopher." But 
not so with the following propositions : — - " Two and two are 
four;" "Vice. and misery are inseparable." We cannot say, 
"Two are four and two are four;" "Vice is inseparable and 
misery is inseparable." 

The same distinction should be observed in any element. 
"The boat sails between Brooklyn and New York; 99 not "be 
tween Brooklyn and between New York." 

The soldier was weak, but courageous. 

It is a sentence having a simple subject and com- 
pound predicate. 

Soldier is the subject. 

Was weak and ivas courageous form the compound predi- 
cate, because they belong in common to the 
same subject — " soldier." 

The subject . . is limited by " the," an adjective element 
of the first class, used to define " soldier." 

But is a coordinate conjunction, (adversative,) 

and connects the two predicates by con- 
trasting the latter with the former, accord- 
ing to Eule XL 

You may buy books or slates. 

It is a sentence having a compound objective element. 

You is the subject. 

May buy ... is the predicate. 

You is not limited. 

May buy ... is limited by u books or slates," a compound 

objective element, of the first class, showing 

what may be bought. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 77 

Or is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) show- 
ing that a choice is offered between " books * * 
and " slates," which are connected by it ; ac- 
cording to Rule XL 

161. Since a compound element may have a 
verb or pronoun agreeing with it, the following rule 
should be observed : — 

Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates 
to two or more nouns connected by a coordi- 
nate conjunction, — 

1st. If it agrees with them taken conjointly, 
it must be in the plural number; — 

2d. But, if it agrees with them taken sepa- 
rately, it must be of the same number as that 
which stands next to it. 

3d. If it agrees with one, and not the other, 
it must be of the same number as that with 
which it agrees. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Charles and his sister were absent. 
f Charles or his sister toas absent. 
J Neither Charles nor his sister was absent. 
^ Charles or his sisters were absent. 
V Either his sisters or Charles himself was absent. 
r Not Charles, but his sister, was absent. 

Charles, and not his sister, was absent. 
\ Charles, as well as his sister, zoas absent. 

Not Charles, but his sisters, were absent. 

Charles, and not his sisters, teas absent. 



2. 



78 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) "When the connected parts are preceded by each, every , 
and no, the verb or pronoun should be in the singular number. 

162. When the parts connected by a coordinate 
conjunction are of different persons a verb should 
agree with the^first person, rather than the second 
or third, and with the second rather than the 
third; as, '-'John and I are coming;" "Thou or 
John art guilty." 

163. A compound predicate generally contains 
similar attributes, each being a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or a noun. 

(a.) The parts generally, though not always, agree in mode 
and tense. 

164. When two or more nouns in the possessive 
case are connected, - — 1st, if the object possessed 
belongs to the two conjointly, the sign of possession 
should be applied to the last only ; as, Little and 
Brown's store; — but, 2d, if different objects, hav- 
ing the same name, are possessed, the sign of pos- 
session ( ? s) should belong to them separately; as, 
u Greenleafs and Emerson's Arithmetic." 

Exercise 28. 

Analyze the following sentences, parsing the con 
junctions and the verbs : — 

The sun and moon stood still. Abraham, Isaac, an; 
Jacob, were Jewish patriarchs. Exercise ferments th* 
humors, throws off redundancies, and assists nature. Th? 
plain and simple style recommends and heightens the sub 
lime. Education expands and elevates the mind. EeU 
gion refines and purifies the affections. Many very worth} 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. / U 

and sensible people have certain odd "ricks. Some people 
do little good, but much evil. 

Write predicates to the following compound sub- 
jects : — 

Washington and Lafayette ; sun and moon ; my brother 
and I ; Samuel or Peter ; silver or gold ; neither one nor 
the other ; not Adam, but Eve ; snow, as well as rain ; 
William or his sons ; Cain, and not Abel ; Jacob or his 
children ; the members or the president ; not the children- 
but the father ; George, and Joseph also ; every man and 
woman ; each boy and girl. 

Model. Washington and Lafayette were distinguished 
generals. 

Write compound predicates to the follotving sub- 
jects : — 

Promises, murderer, emperor, picture, Bible, boys, chil- 
dren, grammar, Arnold, Cicero, Mahomet, coal, religion, 
virtue, diligence, behavior, kindness. 

Model. Promises are often made and broken. 

Write fifteen sentences of your own, limiting the 
subjects of the first five by a compound adjective element, 
— the predicates of the next five by a compound ob- 
jective element, — and the predicates of the last five 
by a compound adverbial element. 

Models. A large and beautiful, horse was killed. 
The flood swept away trees, fences, houses, and barns. 
Some men sin frequently , deliberately, and presump- 
tuously. 

Write ten sentences, making any two elements in 
each compound. 

Model. George and David study grammar and arith- 
metic* 



60 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



SECTION XI. 

SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAME.— 
RECAPITULATION. 

165. We have seen (Sec. VIII.) that several 
dissimilar elements may unite, and form one com- 
plex element, and (Sec. IX.) that several similar 
elements may unite, and form one compound ele- 
ment. Besides these, there may be several ele- 
ments which do not unite with each other, but 
form two or more separate elements of the same 
name ; as, " An indolent man seldom rises early" 

(a.) Such elements are always subordinate to the subject or 
predicate, but are neither subordinate to, nor coordinate with, 
each other. They may be either simple, complex, or compound. 

166. There may be several different adjective 
elements ; as, " The good parson, Mr. Wiseman, 
has paid us a visit." 

167. There may be two objective elements, ( 120 ; ) 
as, " I gave him a book; ri " They made himpresident." 

168. There may be several adverbial elements ; 
as, u The sun is always eclipsed twice annually" 

Note. This condition of the elements will be illustrated more 
fully hereafter. 

RECAPITULATION, AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE 
ELEMENTS. 

169. The following recapitulation and classifica 
tion of the materials which enter into the structure 
of a sentence, will serve to prepare the learner for 
the two succeeding chapters. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 81 

170. The first and most important element is 
the substantive. 

( a.) The term substantive is here used to denote the noun, or 
any word which takes the place of the noun. 

171. The substantive performs three distinct 
offices in the structure of sentences. — 1st. It may 
be used as the subject. (33.) — 2d. It may be used as 
an attribute, either predicated or assumed. (16 ; 60 ; 
104, b\ 106.) — 3d. It may be used as the object. 
(117, 119.) 

172. The verb, considered apart from the attri 
bate, (24, note,) performs the important function 
of connecting the attribute to the subject. (16, 17. j 

173. The adjective (including the participle, 
which is only a species of adjective) is used to 
denote a property of the substantive, either predi- 
cated (36, 6.) or assumed. (16, a.) 

174. The adverb is used to denote some circum- 
stance or property of an action or quality. 

( a.) An adverb is used to denote some property of an attribute, 
and is to an attribute what an attribute is to a substantive ; as, 
" He ran swiftly " = " His running is swift;" " She writes beauti- 
fully " = " Her writing is beautiful." 

(5.) Modal adverbs are to be excepted, since they modify the 
assertion, that is, the copula, and not the attribute. 

175. The conjunction performs the important 
office of connecting the various elements. 

Note. Interjections are not elements. 

176. Strictly speaking, all sentences may be 
said to be composed of three kinds of materials 
namely, substantives, adjectives, and adverbs ; the cop- 
ula, and all other merely connective words, forming 



82 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



no part of the substance of the sentence, but serv- 
ing only to unite these materials into one structure. 

EXAMPLES. 

I. Thesubstantive,usedas, I % Attribute ; j g ' Modifier^' 

*3. Object. 

II. TJie adjective. . used as ... . Attribute ; < ' 

J ' ( 2. Modifier * 

III. The advert, . . used as ... . . . . Modifier. 

177. These materials, arranged in a general 
formula for a sentence, stand thus : — 

Adj. Ele. + Sub. : : Pred. + Obj. Ele. + Adv. Ele. 

Substantive. ? Substantive . S Substantive. ) Substantive . Adverb . 
Adjective.f > c Adjective.f ) 

Exercise 29. 

Analyze and parse the following miscellaneous 
examples. Tell the office of each substantive, (noun 
or pronoun , 171;) — of each adjective, (adjective 
and participle, 173.) 

We have learned our lessons. Joseph was sold. You 
might have crossed the stream. He will sell some figs. 
She should have been studying her lesson. The earl is 
our guest. Be sober. Live contentedly. Break not your 
promise. Be thou a scholar. Be firm. Do be quiet. 
The soldiers must have been drilled. The ship ploughs 
the sea. The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book. 
Edward the Confessor abused his mother. Queen Chris- 
tina resigned her crown. Edward the Black Prince wore 

* An assumed attribute is a modifier. t See IT 173. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 83 

black armor. I am, dear sir, your affectionate friend. 
My son, give me thy heart. The earth and the moon are 
planets. The creation demonstrates God's power and 
wisdom. Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
follow a civil war. Avoid arrogance and servility. 

The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated 
landscape, the boundless ocean, and the starry firmament, 
are beautiful and magnificent objects. True religion gives 
our behavior a native and unaffected ease. Plain, honest 
truth wants no artificial coloring. Wise and good men are 
frequently unsuccessful. True worth is modest and retir- 
ing. Ulysses was a wise, eloquent, cautious, and intrepid 
hero. Good nature mends and beautifies all objects. The 
liberal arts soften and harmonize the temper. A philoso- 
pher should examine every thing coolly, impartially, accu- 
rately, and rationally. I shall go myself, or send some 
one. He is not sick, but discouraged. She sings, as well 
as plays. He has caught a pike or a perch. O, how cold 
it is ! His fate, alas ! was deplorable. Coming events cast 
their shadows before * 

Complete the following sentences by writing answers 
to the questions in parentheses : — 

(How many?) (What kind?) birds fly (How?) 

(Whose?) dog caught (What?) (When?) (How 

many?) fishes were caught (When?) (Which?) 

horse kicked (Whom ?) (How ?) (When ?) 

(What ?) tree stands (Where ?) (How many ?) men 

drove (Whom?) (How?) 

Model. Ten Hack birds fly swiftly. 



84 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 

CHAPTER IT. 

(SIMPLE SENTENCES.) 

ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS. — PHRASES, 



SECTION I. 

NATURE OF ELEMENTS OF THE SECOND CLASS 

178. An element of the second class is an infin- 
itive or a preposition and its object. These, taken as 
a phrase, form, like an element of the first class, 
a constituent part of the sentence ; as, " to haste : " 
" of Boston ; " " in reading." 

Note. The term phrase is properly used to denote any com- 
bination of words which does not form a proposition. Hence, a 
complex or compound element of the first class is a phrase. 
But, in this work, the term will be used more particularly to dp- 
note an element of the second class. 

(a.) In an element of the second class, both the idea and its 
relation (11, b.) are represented by separate words ; whereas, in 
an element of the first class, the idea only is represented ; the 
relation must be supplied by the mind; as, "horses of Mex- 
ico *' = * " Mexican horses." Hence an element of the second 
class may be considered as the expansion of a corresponding ele- 
ment of the first. 

(b.) An element of the first class may be changed to one of 

* In the subsequent parts of this work, it will often be neces- 
sary to represent equivalent expressions. For this purpose the 
sign of equality (=) will be used. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 85 

the second, or an element of the second to one of the first, by 
introducing or suppressing the exponent of the relation, making, 
of course, the requisite change of form ; as, " a virtuous man " = 
" a man of virtue;" "the temple of Solomon" = " Solomon s 
temple." 

1.— COMPONENT PARTS OF THE PHRASE. 

179. The preposition is a connective used to 
join a noun or pronoun to the word or phrase on 
which it depends. The noun or pronoun is called 
the object of the preposition. 

180. Prepositions are used to denote the various 
relations of time, place, cause, manner, possession, &c. 

Note. For a list of prepositions, see Appendix, Lesson XIII. 

181. The use of the preposition may be ex- 
pressed by the following rule : — 

Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show 
the relation of its object to the preceding word 
on which the object depends ; as, " George 
went into the garden" 

182. The following is the rule for the object : — 

Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to 
complete the relation of a preposition, must be 
in the objective case ; as, " They gathered 
around him" 

183. There is another species of phrase, of a 
verbal nature, which belongs to the second class of 
elements; as, "for complaining]" " He was guilty 
of stealing." 

8 



86 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

184. Of this species there are two varieties ; — 
(a.) The preposition and present participle ; as, 

" for reading ; " — 

(6.) The preposition and perfect participle; as, 
"for having read." 

185. The participle, thus used, is called a parti- 
cipial noun, and is disposed of by Rule XIV. 

( a.) Verbal or participial nouns are formed from predicates by 
removing the copula. They belong to the second class of ele- 
ments only when they follow prepositions. 

EXAMPLES. 

Boys write writing . in writing. 

Boys are active .... being active . ... in being active. 
Boys are scholars . . . being scholars . . . in being scholars. 

Note. When the attribute of the predicate is an adjective or 
noun, the participle of the copula must be joined to it, to form the 
verbal noun. 

(b.) The forms " writing," "being active," "being scholars," 
may be used as nouns in any relation, and therefore, in many 
respects, resemble the infinitive. They may perform the office 
which their position in the sentence (as subject, attribute, or ob- 
ject) requires, and, at the same time, may receive the same modi- 
fications which they would have received had they been complete 
predicates. 

(c.) Hence a verbal noun may be modified first as a noun, and 
secondly as a verb; as, "1 did not know of his understanding 
the Greek." 

(d.) In the sentence, " I was not aware of his being the judge 
of the Supreme Court," the form "being judge" is limited by 
"his," and is the object of "of;" yet "judge" retains its 
character as predicate-nominative, and is limited just as it would 
have been had the sentence stood, "He is judge of the Supreme 
Court." 

186. The infinitive is a peculiar form, partici- 
pating the properties of a noun and verb, and 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 87 

when used to modify other words, should be parsed 
by the following rule : — 

Rule XV. The infinitive depends upon 
the word which it limits ; as, " We went to 
see you." 

(fl.) Since the infinitive partakes of the properties of a noun 
and a verb, it has the construction of both, and may be used a? 
subject, attribute, or object. 

(b.) The infinitive differs from the substantive in the follow- 
ing respects : — All words used to limit the infinitive are such as 
limit the verb. Like the verb, it may, by a change of form, de- 
note the continuance, completion, or the time, of an action ; as, 
41 to write ; " u to be writing ; " " to have written ; " " to have been 
writing." 

( c.) It resembles the preposition and its object in the following 
respects : — It consists of two parts, — some form of the verb, 
and the particle "to," which, in some respects, is like a preposi- 
tion. The "to" seems, like the preposition, to perform the 
office of a connective, as may be seen by omitting it in the fol- 
lowing examples} as, "I love . . . write;" "We began . . . 
consider." 

(d.) The infinitive differs from the preposition and its ob- 
ject in the following particulars: — The "to" is the only 
preposition used with the verb. The infinitive may be used as 
the subject ; whereas the single phrase is seldom, if ever, so 
used. The two -parts of the infinitive are never separated by 
intervening words. The two parts of the infinitive are taken 
together, and, thus combined, may become a noun in any re- 
lation. 

II.— THE PHRASE CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 

187. Thus far, the phrase has been considered 
in reference to its component parts. It must now 
be regarded as a combination, forming, like a single 
word, a distinct element of the sentence. 



88 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) The phrase, it will be seen, has a double construction ; — 
1st. Each word, excepting those of the infinitive, has a con- 
struction of its own. 

2d. As a whole, it forms one of the constituent elements of a 
sentence. 

188. The phrase may be used to form either of 
the two principal, or of the three subordinate ele- 
ments, (8;) and, since the materials of which any 
sentence is composed (setting aside connectives) 
are the substantive, the adjective, and the adverb, 
(176,) the phrase, in some of its varieties, must 
take the place of each of these parts of speech. 
Hence, 

189. Phrases are divided into substantive, adjec- 
tive, and adverbial, according to the office which 
they perform in the sentence. 

(a.) No one sentence, perhaps, in the language is wholly com- 
posed of phrases. Yet phrases, mingled with other forms, may 
be used to constitute either of the five elements of a sentence. 



SECTION II. 

THE PHRASE USED AS A PRINCIPAL ELEMENT. 

190. When a phrase is used to form either the 
subject or the predicate of a proposition, it becomes 
a principal element of the second class. 

l.— THE SUBJECT. 

191. The form most commonly used for the 
subject, is the infinitive ; as, " T> see the sun is 
pleasant;" "To deceive is criniir^u 7> 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 80 

192. Since the infinitive is a kind of abstract 
noun, it is used to name an action when separated 
from its subject. 

(a.) The infinitive bears a striking resemblance to the class of 
nouns called abstract ; as, "generosity " from "generous" [man;] 
so " to xcrite" from [men] "write." 

193. Although the infinitive expresses an action 
abstractly, it is often necessary to connect it with 
a subject or agent of the action; as, " For you to 
deceive is highly criminal. 77 

(#.) In this example, " you " is the subject of " to deceive ; " 
and the whole phrase, "for you to deceive," is the subject of the 
proposition. 

(I.) An abstract noun may, in like manner, be connected with 
the person or thing from which the quality is abstracted ; as, " a 
generous man" = a a man of generosity." In either case, the 
quality " generous " or u of generosity " is attached to " man." 

194. When the infinitive is used in its most 
general sense, as the subject of a proposition, the 
simple form only is used ; as, " To steal is base ; ' 7 
but when it has a subject of its own, that subject 
must be in the objective case, following the prepo- 
sition for; as, "For him to steal is base. 77 

(a.) To change the infinitive to an element of the first class, 
substitute for it the participial noun, when the infinitive has no 
subject; but when it has a subject of its own, prefix to the parti- 
cipial noun the possessive case of the subject; as, " To lie ir. 
wicked " = " Lying is wicked ; " " For him to lie is wicked " == 
"His lying is wicked." 

195. A complex phrase, formed by uniting two 
prepositions and their objects, is sometimes used 
to denote a given time or space, and may become 
the subject of a proposition : as, " From morning 
to night is called day.' 7 

8* 



90 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

'«.) The simple phrase, consisting of the preposition and 
object, seldom, if ever, becomes the subject of a proposition. 

196. By a peculiar idiom of the language, the 
infinitive or other phrase, when used as a subject, 
is first represented by " it n standing at the head of 
the sentence, and is itself placed after the predicate ; 
as, " It is pleasant to see the sun ; " u It is criminal 
to deceive" 

(a.) " It," thus used, or u there," as in ft 35, ( b.) is said to be an 
expletive, because it fills a vacancy, and yet is not absolutely 
necessary to the sense. It often gives force and beauty to an 
expression, by enabling us to place emphasis on a word which 
otherwise must occupy an unfavorable position in the sentence ; 
as, " He did not do it ; " " It was not he that did it." 

197. A phrase used as a substantive is always 
of the third person, singular number, neuter gender. 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

To steal is base. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

To steal is the subject, because it is that of which the 
quality (36, b.) " base " is affirmed. It is a prin- 
cipal element of the second class. 

Is base . is the predicate, because it is the quality affirmed 
of " to steal." " Is " is the verb, and u base " is 
the attribute. 

To steal is a verb, (principal parts, steal, stole, stolen,) in 
the infinitive mode, present tense, and is used as a 
noun, (third pers., sing, num., neut. gen., and 
nom. case,) in the relation of subject ; according 
to Hule I. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 91 

It is easy to be deceived. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

To be deceived is the subject, and is represented by the 
expletive " it." 

Is easy is the predicate. 

To be deceived is a regular passive verb, (principal parts, 
deceive, deceived, deceived,) in the infinitive 
mode, present tense, and is used as a noun, 
in the relation of subject; according to 
Rule I. 

It is a personal pronoun, representing " to be 

deceived ; " of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, and nominative 
case, and is an expletive used simply to in- 
troduce the sentence in a particular way. 

Exercise 30. 

Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
infinitives : — 

To be good is to be happy. To err is human. To for- 
give is divine. To obey is to enjoy. To write the same 
things is not grievous. To swear is wicked. For you to 
cheat is surprising. To see the sun is pleasant. To ac- 
quire knowledge is necessary. For American citizens to 
be educated is essential. To conceal the truth is often 
highly criminal. To repent is our duty. 

It is easy to deceive children. It is wrong to excite 
false hopes. It is base for one to betray his country. It 
is necessary to write. It is pleasant to receive our friends. 
It is wrong to hate our enemies. 



W& ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Write predicates to the following infinitives used as 

subjects : — - 

To be idle ; to labor ; to write ; to cheat ; to love our 
enemies; to disobey our parents; to study; to sing; to 
play ; to laugh ; to open ; to swim. 

Model. To be idle is criminal. 

Write infinitives as subjects to the following pred- 
icates, the sentence being introduced by " it." 

It is easy. It is contemptible. It is enough. It is diffi- 
cult. It is wrong. It pleased him. It encourages a child. 
It is important. It is favorable. It dignifies humanity. 
It is necessary. It disgusts one. It is pleasant. It is but 

just. 

Model. It is easy to write a lesson. 

Change any twelve of the above examples, introduced 
by " it," to equivalent sentences, in which the infinitive 
shall stand at the head. 

Model. To deceive children is easy. 

Change twelve of the above examples, beginning with 
the infinitive, to equivalent forms introduced by " it." 
Model. It is human to err e 

Change the infinitives in any twelve of the fore- 
going examples to participial nouns (194, a.) used as 
subjects. 

Model. Acquiring knowledge is necessary. 

II. — THE PREDICATE. 

19S. There are two forms of the phrase used 
as predicate, — the substantive, and the adjective. 
(36, b. c, 189.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 93 

199. The infinitive, when used as predicate, de- 
notes, — 

(a.) An equivalent term or expression; as, " To 
obey is to enjoy ; ?? — 

(b.) What is possible, or obligatory; as, " The 
passage is to be found ;" "Our rights are to be 
respected ; " — 

(c.) What is settled, or determined upon ; as, " The 
ship is to sail next week." 

200. When the phrase used as predicate con- 
sists of a preposition and its object, it is equivalent 
to an adjective, and, like the predicate-adjective, de- 
notes some property or circumstance of the subject ; 
as, " George is without a penny " = " George is pen- 
niless ; v " He is at dinner = dining ; " " He is 
in health — well" 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Our honor is to be maintained. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Honor is the subject, because, &c. 

Is to be maintained is the predicate, because, &c. 

The subject, honor, is limited by " our," an adjective ele- 
ment of the first class, denoting whose 
honor. 

The predicate ... is not limited ; it denotes what ought 
to be. "Is" is the copula, and " to be 
maintained " is the attribute. 

To be maintained . is a regular passive verb, infinitive 
mode, present tense, and is used as a 
noun in the relation of predicate ; ac 
cording to Rule II. 



94 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

He is without fear. 

Note. Analyze as above. 

Is ivithoutfear, the predicate, denotes a state of the sub- 
ject. " Is " is the copula, and " without 
fear " is the attribute ; it is equivalent 
to fearless, and relates to the subject ; ac- 
cording to Rule III. 

Without .... is a preposition, and shows the relation of 
" fear" to " he ; " according to Rule XIII. 

Fear is a common noun, &c, and objective case, 

and is used to complete the relation denoted 
by " without; " according to Rule XIV. 

Exercise 31. 

Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
predicates : — 

His nephew is to be educated. The captive is to be 
released. The work is to be completed. George was in 
fault. The slanderer is beneath contempt. The child 
was in ecstasy. The general is in fine health. The pas- 
sage is to be found. The watchmen are on their guard. 
He is at supper. The patient is in distress. Our word is 
not to be broken. The trees are in blossom. The pris- 
oner is without friends. The gentleman's character is 
above suspicion. My brother is in excellent spirits. 

Write ten sentences, having a phrase for the pred- 
icate. 

Change the predicates in the foregoing examples 
to elements of the first class. 

Model. His nephew must he educated, George was 
culpable* 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 95 

SECTION III. 

THE PHRASE USED AS THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

201. When the phrase is used to effect either 
of the purposes mentioned in H 96, (a. b. c. d.) it is 
called an adjective element of the second class. 

202. Quality is denoted by an abstract noun 
formed from an adjective of quality, and is con- 
nected with the subject by the preposition of; as, 
" a generous man " = u a man of generosity." 

203. Circumstance is indicated by some noun 
denoting place, time, cause, source, or manner, con- 
nected by of or any other preposition which 
may show its true relation to the subject ; as, " an 
Arabian horse " = " a horse of [or from] Arabia ; " 
u a morning walk' 7 z=: a a walk in the morning;" 
" a brazen kettle " = i: a kettle of brass ; " " a Aasfy 
preparation " — " a preparation ih haste." 

204. To identify a common noun, we often 
connect with it by 0/ its proper name ; as, " the 
city of Boston" = "the city Boston." The z?i/m- 
tfttra is often used for a similar purpose ; as, " A 
desire to assist you prompted the proposal." 

205. Possession is denoted by of, which shows 
the relation of the possessor to the object possessed ; 
as, " the estate of my father " = " my father's estate." 

(a.) It will readily be seen, that the preposition of is proper- 
ly the connective of the adjective phrase. For the purpose of con- 
venient reference, its principal uses are here brought together ■ — 

( 1.) It shows the relation of a quality to the object to which it 



96 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

belongs; as, "a man of virtue "== " a virtuous man." (2.) It 
shows the relation of an effect to the cause or agent; as, "the 
temple of Solomon" = u Solomon's temple." (3.) It shows the 
relation of a material to the thing made of it ; as, " a vessel of 
brass" = "a brazen vessel." (4.) It shows the relation of a 
whole to some of its parts; as, "the top of a free " = " the tree- 
top." (5.) It denotes the relation of persons ; as, " the brother 
of Samuel" = u SamueVs brother." (6.) It denotes the relation 
of a possessor to the object possessed ; as, " the estate of my 
father" = " my father's estate." (7.) It denotes the relation of 
a proper name to a common name denoting the same thing ; as, 
"the city of Boston" — u the city Boston." (8.) It shows the 
relation of some circumstance of time or place; as, "the moun- 
tains of Mexico " = " the Mexican mountains;" "the report of 
last year " = " last year's report." 

(&.) In many of these cases, some word is understood ; as, " a 
walk taken in the morning;" "a house situated on the moun- 
tain ; " " imprisonment suffered for debt ; " "a heavy loss caused 
by fire." 

(c.) The participial noun is often used to limit a noun; as, 
" The hope of receiving a reward stimulated him." 

Models for Analyzing and Parsing. 

The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Brother is the subject. 

Usurped is the predicate. 

The subject, brother, is limited by the phrase " of Rich- 
ard," an adjective element of the 
second class, denoting the family re- 
lation of " brother " and " Richard ; " 
it is equivalent to " Richard's." " Of" 
is the connective, and " Richard " is 
the object. 

Of is a preposition, and shows the rela« 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 97 

tion of " Richard " to Ci brother ; " ac- 
cording to Rule XIII. 

Richard . is a proper noun, of the third person, 

singular number, masculine gender, 
objective case, and completes the re- 
lation of the preposition u of;" ac- 
cording to Rule XIV. 

His attempt to rescue Ids friend was fatal to 
himself 

JNote. Analyze as in the last example. 

Attempt, the subject, is limited by " to rescue," an adjec- 
tive element of the second class, used 
to designate the attempt. 

To rescue is a verb, (from rescue, rescued, res- 
cued.) in the infinitive mode, present 
tense, and depends upon " attempts ; " 
according to Rule XV. 

Exercise 32. 

Analyze the following examples, and parse the 
phrases : — 

A man of straw was prostrated. The dew of the morn- 
ing has passed away. The light of the moon assisted us. 
The king of Morven struck his breast. The temple of 
Solomon was destroyed. Time to come is called future. 
A desire to see you has brought me here. The spirit of 
Loda shrieked. The joy of his youth was great. The 
city of Mexico is beautifully situated. The hope of the 
hypocrite will fail. The man at the mast-head descried 
an iceberg. His intention to resign has been publicly an- 
nounced. The true spirit of heroism is generous. The 
brother of Henry left the city. A man of honor will 
9 



98 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

never forsake his friends. The hope of hearing from you 
has greatly delighted me. 

Write sentences limiting the subjects by the follow- 
ing phrases : — 

Of morning ; in the moon ; of brass ; of generosity ; 
of America ; of virtue ; of seeing ; of doing ; of wood ; 
of Europe ; on board ; of the house ; of friends ; of home. 

Model. The dawn of morning found Waverley on the 
esplanade. 

Change any twelve of the adjective elements in the 
preceding examples into equivalent forms of the first 
class. 

Model. The morning dew has passed away. 

Write sentences of your own, limiting the subjects 
by the following adjective elements ; then change them 
to the' second class. 

Evening, virtuous, David's, Solomon's, generous, honor- 
able, penniless, comfortless, coming, breathless, prosperous, 
experienced, deformed, wise, country, morning. 

Model. An evening walk is agreeable = A walk at 
evening is agreeable. 



SECTION IV. 

THE PHRASE USED AS THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 
I. — SINGLE OBJECT. 

206. When the phrase is used to complete the 
meaning of a verb, either as direct or indirect object 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 99 

it is called an objective element of the second class ; 
as, " I desire to speak ; " " I spoke of him" 

207. The only form used as the direct object 
of a transitive verb is the infinitive ; as, " We in- 
tend (What?) to leave to-day;" " They tried 
(What?) to conceal their fears." 

208. The infinitive is used to complete the 
meaning of verbs which do not take a substantive 
as an object; as, " He seemed to revive" 

(a.) The infinitive is often used to complete the meaning of 
adjectives; as, "The pupils are anxious to learn" 

(b.) The verbs and adjectives which are followed by the infin- 
itive, are commonly such as refer to some operation of the mind ; 
as, desire, desirous; emulate, emulous. 

209. The infinitive has two distinct uses as a 
modifier of the predicate. It may be used as a 
complement of a verb or adjective ; or it may de- 
note a purpose; as, " We went (Why?) to visit our 
friends." 

(a.) The latter is an adverbial relation, and will be consid- 
ered in another place. 

II. — DOUBLE OBJECT. 

Personal Object with an Infinitive. 

210. A class of verbs, in addition to those men- 
tioned in 1T 122, (6.) take an object denoting some 
person, (sometimes a thing,) and an infinitive used 
as an attribute of it, (120.) as, "He urged vie to 

go-" 

(a.) The first object should be regarded as the subject of the 



100 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

infinitive. (122, d.) This construction resembles the accusative 
with the infinitive in the Latin and Greek. 

(£>.) The subject of the infinitive must be a different person 
from the subject of the principal verb ; otherwise the first object 
\a omitted ; as, " / wish you to go ; " "I wish to go." 

211. When such verbs assume the passive form, 
the first or personal object becomes the subject, 
and the infinitive remains in the predicate, (122;) 
as, " They made the man labor ; " " The man- was 
made to labor" 

212. The infinitive takes the place of the di- 
rect object after certain verbs, (123,) and has, at 
the same time, the indirect object for its subject ; 
as, " He taught me to write;" "I was taught to 
write." # Compare with the preceding, " He 
taught me writing" (185, a.) or " Writing was 
taught me;" "I was taught writing" 

213. The to of the infinitive is omitted after 
the active voice of bid, dare, let, malce, hear, need, 
feel, see ; as, " I heard him say it." 

(&.) After the passive form of these verbs, the to is gener- 
ally expressed; as, "He was heard to say it." 

Direct and Indirect Object, 

214. The indirect object cannot always be ex- 
pressed by a single word. (123.) It often requires 
a preposition to show its relation to the predicate, 
especially if the direct object is placed next the 
verb ; as, " George gave a book to me." 

* Writing and to write (124, a.) may be considered as the 
object after the passive was taught. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 101 

(a.) The indirect object often shows the source from which an 
action tends, the material out of which any thing is made, or the 
theme of conversation ; as, " We made a box out of wood; " " He 
made a fire of coals;" "They begged a, favor of me;" " He 
spoke of a reward." 

215. Some verbs take an indirect object only; 
as ; " Charles spoke of his father." 

(«.) Such verbs often assume the passive form; in which 
case, the preposition must follow the passive verb ; as, " His 
father teas spoken of; " " The anchor is trusted to" 

(£.) It is not always easy to distinguish an indirect object from 
an adverbial circumstance. The general rule is this : — An indi- 
rect object denotes the tendency of an action to or from some ob- 
ject; whereas an adverbial circumstance denotes the place, time, 
cause, or manner, of an action. 

216. The indirect object is often used to com- 
plete the meaning of adjectives which denote some 
state of the mind, or are derived from verbs ; as ; 
" The general was desirous of glory " = (" desired 
glory.") 

Exercise 33. 

Analyze the following examples, and parse the in- 
finitives : — 

They began to sing. The boy learned to write. I did 
not expect to find it. The children love to play. We 
hope to see him. The ambassador desired to have an 
interview. 

He seemed to sleep. We ought to know. The sun 
appears to rise. The boy was anxious to learn. The 
student was ambitious to rise. 

I exhorted him to return. Cadmus taught the Greeks 
to use letters. Let us sit. (213.) I heard him speak. We 
made them stop. He bade me go. I saw him fall. The 
9* 



102 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

officer commanded the soldiers to fire. We told them to 
wait. I ordered him to leave. The doves besought the 
hawk to defend them. Fingal bade his sails to rise. 

Change the verbs in the last paragraph to the pas- 
sive voice. (211.) 

Model. He was exhorted to return. 

Write sentences containing the following predicates, 
and limit each predicate by a direct and an indirect 
object, placing the direct object first : — 

Lend, teach, make, bring, throw, give, present, write, 
buy, ask, play, show, deny, refuse, promise. 
Model. I lent a book to father. 

Re-write these examples, and place the indirect 
object first, omitting the preposition. 

Model. I lent father a book. 

Change any twelve of the above infinitives to par- 
ticipial nouns. 

Model. They began singing. 



SECTION V. 

THE PHRASE USED AS AN ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 

217. Whenever the phrase is used to limit a 
verb or adjective by denoting some relation of place, 
time, cause, or manner, it is called an adverbial ele- 
ment of the second; class : as, " The messenger came 
from Washington; " " We left on Tuesday ; " " He 
ran for fear ; " " You wrote in haste" 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 103 

(a.) Since the phrase denotes an adverbial relation, it can 
often be changed to an adverb. So also the adverb may often 
be changed to a phrase. (178, b.) 

Model for -Analyzing and Parsing. 

We left on Tuesday. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

We ... is the subject, and 

Left . . is the predicate, both principal elements of the 
first class. 

We ... is not limited. 

Left . . is limited by the phrase " on Tuesday," an ad- 
verbial element of the second class, denoting the 
time of leaving. 

On ... is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Tues- 
day " to " leave ; " according to Rule XIII. 

Tuesday is a noun, &c, and completes the relation of 
" on ; " according to Rule XIV. 

I.— PHRASES DENOTING PLACE. 

218. Pnrases, like adverbs of place, (128,) de- 
note three relations, — ivhither, whence, where. The 
first two refer to direction ; the third, to locality. 

219. Tendency to a place {Whither ?) is indi- 
cated by to, toivards, into, up, down, and sometimes 
for. 

( a.) Tendency in a vertical direction is indicated by the oppo- 
sites up and down ; in a horizontal direction, by along, if it has 
no reference to a limit; by towards, if it only approaches a limit; 
by to, if it reaches it ; and by into, if it enters it. 

220. Tendency from a place ( Whence ?) is de- 
noted by from, out of 



104 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

221. Locality {Where!) relates to the different 
"dimension of space, and is represented by the oppo- 
sites, in, out of; within, without ; before, behind or 
after; over, under; above, beneath or below; on or 
upon, underneath. To these are added, at, near, 
round, around, about, across, along, beside, through. 

(a.) Between and betwixt denote a place between tioo positions 
Among and amidst refer to several positions. 

Exercise 34 

Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
phrases : — - 

The kangaroo lives in New Holland. Burgoyne sur- 
rendered at Saratoga. A treaty of peace was concluded 
at Marseilles. Napoleon was banished to St. Helena. 
The battle was fought at Vittoria. The church stands 
beside the river. Mesopotamia w T as situated between two 
rivers. The nuncio came from Rome. The Israelites 
came out of Egypt. They went to Canaan. We sat on 
the sofa. The birds flew over the barn. The rabbits 
burrowed under the tree. We sailed around the island. 

Write sentences of your own, limiting the predicates 
by the following phrases : — 

Over the hill ; on the ground ; up the tree ; to New 
York ; from Philadelphia ; through the air ; on the steps ; 
toward the east ; beside the wall ; around the garden ; by 
Long Island ; along the road ; athwart the sky. 
Model. The horse ran over the hill. 

Change the following adverbs to equivalent phrases, 
and apply them in sentences of your own : — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 105 

Here, there, hither, thither, hence, thence, eastward, 
westward, homeward, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, 
yonder. 

Model. The consul resides in this place. 

Write fifteen sentences limiting the predicates by 
phrases denoting place. Let five refer to direction, 
and ten to locality. 

II. — PHRASES DENOTING TIME. 

222. It has been seen (78, a. b.) that an event 
may relate to two points of time, — that of the 
speaker, and a specified time. The specified time 
may be denoted by the phrase, 

223. Phrases, like adverbs, may refer to the 
past, present, and future; but, unlike them, may 
denote three relations in reference to each of these 
three grand divisions. (78, b. c.) 

224. Phrases are used to mark the time of an 
event more definitely. They may denote a point, 
a period, ox frequency of time, and, like the adverb, 
answer the questions, JVhenl How long ? Hoiv 
often 1 

(a.) Frequency is generally expressed by the noun times, lim 
ited by some numeral denoting the number of repetitions ; as, 
" It was done [for] four times." Below four times, the adverb is 
generally used; as, once, twice, thrice. 

(b.) The preposition is often omitted in phrases denoting either 
of the above relations; and in those denoting frequency, it is 
rarely expressed ; as, " We labored all day ; " " The steamer left 
last Monday ;" "Randolph crossed the Atlantic sixteen times in 
nine years." 

(c.) The following table contains the principal prepositions 
employed to denote the different relations of time : — 



106 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

f 1. Point . . . . = at, on, in, within, by, 
or, during, i 
throughout. 



x _. . \ 2. Period. . . . = for, during, through, 

1 Time simultaneous. < 



^ 3. Frequency.* 

C 1. Point . . . = before, ere, towards. 
II. Time antecedent. . . / 2. Period . . . = till, until. 
\ 3. Frequency =for. 
( 1 . Point . . . . = after. 
III. Time subsequent. • A 2. Period . . . =from, since. 
\ 3. Frequency =for. 
(d.) A point of time, is often denoted by the preposition^and 
participle; as, " I went, on hearing the news." 

(e.) Between and betwixt denote both antecedent and subse- 
quent time, since they refer to two points ; as, " I shall leave be- 
tween Monday and Thursday." 

Exercise 35. 

Analyze the following propositions, and tell whether 
the phrases denote a time simultaneous with, antecedent 
to, or subsequent to, the time of the event : — 

The steamer left on Friday. The cars will arrive at 
twelve. Some birds remain throughout the year. My 
cousin staid a week. (224, h.) The work must be com- 
pleted before Saturday. The stage will arrive towards 
morning. The president staid till Monday. The boat left 
after twelve. I have been here since sunrise. The boat 
was repaired six times. 

Write ten sentences, each containing some phrase de- 
noting time. 

Select fifteen sentences from your reading lesson, 
each having a phrase denoting time. 

* As the present is bat an instant, a repetition of an act can- 
not occur in present time. We cannot say, " I do it ten times," 
unless we use "do" in the sense of " shall do." 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107 



UL — PHRASES DENOTING CAUSE OR SOURCE. 

225. Phrases which denote cause or source gen- 
erally answer the questions, Why ? On what account ? 
For what purpose ? From what source ? as, " Christ 
was betrayed for money" 

(a.) The prepositions used to denote these relations are, most 
commonly, for, with, of, from, by, through. To these add the 
phrases on account of and because of. 

226. The infinitive often expresses a moral 
cause or motive ; as, " He went to see" 

^a.) The infinitive commonly called absolute, denotes a pur- 
pose ) as, " To confess the truth, I was present." 

227. The participial noun often expresses a cause 
or motive ; as, " He was arrested for stealing" 

Exercise 36. 

The poor man died of hunger. The woman fainted 
from fright. The farmer was imprisoned for debt. The 
soldier fights for glory. The party were travelling for 
pleasure. The victim seemed, by his dress, to be a sailor. 
The children went to see the animals. They remained to 
visit their friends. Washington sent an officer to recon- 
noitre the enemy's camp. We stopped to see the consul. 

Write twenty sentences, limiting each predicate by 
a phrase denoting cause. 

IV. — PHRASES DENOTING MANNER. 

228. Phrases denoting manner, like their corre- 
sponding adverbs, may denote either quality or 
quantity. Those which denote quality answer the 



108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

question, Howl as, " The messenger came (Howl) 
in haste" Those which denote quantity answer 
the questions, How muchl &c . ; as, "The wall 
was ten rods long." 

(a.) Phrases denoting quality are commonly connected with 
verbs ; those denoting quantity, with adjectives. 

229. Phrases answering the question, How 1 
are, — 

(a.) Those which show how any thing is done ; 
as, " The height of the mountain was measured 
with accuracy ; " — 

(b.) Those which show a resemblance ; as, " The 
water rushed like a torrent ;" — 

(c.) Those which show the means or instrument ; 
as, " Turenne was killed with a cannon ball; v — 

(d.) Those which denote accompaniment; as, 
"Abraham went with Lot; v — 

(e.) Those which denote agency; as, "The 
world was made by him." 

Note. Such phrases as " with certainty," " in truth," "with- 
out doubt," show the manner of the assertion, and are therefore 
expanded forms of the modal adverbs (134) "certainly," "truly," 
" doubtless." 

230. Quantity may be spoken of abcolutely, or 
by way of comparison ; as, " The horse is twenty 
years old;" "The horse is too old for service" 

231. Quantity used absolutely may mark. — 
(a.) Degree of magnitude ; as, " She was modest 

to excess ; " — 

(5.) Measure of magnitude; as, "The wall is 
ten feet high ;" — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 109 

'c. ) The measure of excess; as, " He is four 
\ches* taller than his brother. 1 ' 

232. An attribute may be predicated of a subject, 
so as to show that it exists in quantity or degree 
equal to, or unequal to, the use which is to be made 
of it. The former is called comparison of equality ; 
the latter, of inequality ; as, " Medicine is good [not 
in itself, but] for a sick man;" " The medicine is 
too powerful [not for all complaints, but] for a 
chronic affection." 

233. In comparison of equality, when the second 
term is a verbal idea, the infinitive, with or without 
its subject, (193,) or the participial noun, may be 
used; as, " Prunes are good for eating, or to eat ; " 
" The cake is too rich for the child to eat" 

(«.) Comparison of equality is indicated, first, by the simple 
adjective with for ; secondly, by enough or sufficiently . . . .jfor, or 
the simple infinitive without " for; " thirdly, by so ... . as, with 
the infinitive ; as, " Milk is good for children; " " The apples are 
ripe enough for use, or to use; " " Smith was so artful as to extri- 
cate himself." 

234. Inequality is used to denote excess or de- 
fect ; as, " The undertaking was too great for so 
slight a preparation." 

The preparation is not equal in magnitude to the undertaking 
(a.) The superlative degree takes after it the noun denoting 

the object with which the subject is compared ; as, " Achilles 

was the bravest of the Greeks" 

235. The second term may be, as above, an in- 
finitive or participial noun ; as, " It is too stormy 
for the boat to leave to-night " 

* The measure of magnitude, or of excess, is commonly ex 
pressed without a preposition, (224, b.) 

10 



110 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(«.) Sometimes the to of the infinitive is omitted; as, " We 
could do no less than receive it." 

(&.) Comparison of inequality is denoted, first, by too . . . .for, 
or the simple infinitive without " for ; " secondly, by more or less 
.... than, with the infinitive ; as, " He was too young for the sit- 
nation, or to take the situation; " "You can do no less than in- 
vite him." 

Exercise 37. 

Analyze the following propositions, and parse the 
phrases : — 

The anchor clung to the rock with tenacity. The ele- 
phant takes his food with his trunk. The dove flew with 
rapidity. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. The 
coachman rode by in haste. They have rushed through 
like a hurricane. They devoured the earth like an army 
of locusts. The Georgium Sidus was discovered by Her- 
schel. Lightning and electricity were indentified by 
Franklin. The man was culpable to a great degree. 
James walked with his sister. Columbus crossed the At- 
lantic with ninety men. The walls of Babylon were fif- 
teen miles long. The jacket is too large for the boy. 
The water is too cold for bathing. The coat is too gay 
for an old man. 

Write sentences limiting the predicates by the fol- 
io wing phrases denoting agency. Then change the 
verb to the active voice : — 

By Columbus ; by Moses ; by whales ; by doves ; by 
Washington ; by Cromwell ; by Socrates ; by Judas ; by 
Arnold ; by Paul ; by rabbits ; by insects ; by serpents ; 
by bees ; by labor. 

Model. America was discovered by Columbus zz: Co- 
lumbus discovered America. 

Write sentences limiting the predicates by the fol- 
lowing miscellaneous phrases : — 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Ill 

111 haste ; for a boy ; with rapidity ; like thunder ; ten 
miles ; six feet ; seven rods ; for me to do ; with William ; 
with a sword. 

Change the following adverbs into phrases, and em- 
ploy them in sentences of your own : — 

Carefully, wisely, courageously, unblushingly, tenderly, 
diligently, harmlessly, furiously, despondingly, thought- 
fully, incautiously, rapidly, boldly, timidly, foolishly, bright 
ly, modestly, painfully, elegantly. 

Model. He managed icith care. 

Write or find twenty sentences containing a phrase 
denoting manner. * 

236. The elements of a sentence, so far as de- 
veloped, may be thus represented: — (137, a.) 





Adj. 


+ 


Sub. 


: Pred. 


■ + Obj. 


+ 


Adv, 


Class 


1 




1 


1 


1 




1 


Class 


2 




2 


2 


2 




2 



SECTION VI. 

COMPLEX ELEMENTS. 

237. Each element of a sentence may become - 
complex, either by uniting two dissimilar simple 
elements of the second class, or by joining one of 
the first and one of the second. 

* At this stage of the pupil's progress, his attention should be 
called to the different constructions as they occur in his reading 
lessons. He may at length acquire a habit of classification, 
which will enable him, at sight, to recognize any construction 
in the language. This power is vastly more valuable than 



112 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

238. The essential point of dissimilarity in the 
parts of any complex element is, that one simple 
element stands as principal or basis, and that all 
others are subordinate to it ; as, " The lawyer fully 
established the claims of his client." 

Here the objective element — "the claims of his client — is 
complex. " Claims " is the basis, and " the " and " of his client " 
are subordinate to it. 

Note. For other points of dissimilarity, see IT 146, (a. b. c.) 

239. In the formation of a complex element 
containing simple elements of different classes, — 

{a.) An element of the first class may be the 
basis ; in which case the whole is said to be of the 
first class, (147;) as, " Nobility of birth does not 
insure nobility of mind ;" — 

(b.) An element of the second class may be the 
basis, and to it may be joined one of the first; as, 
" The three great apostles of practical atheism are 
health, wealth, and power ; " — 

(c.) An element of the second class may be the 
basis, and to it may be joined another element of 
the same class; as, " Two of her sources of 
strength are physical." 

Note. The last two combinations are complex elements of 
the second clas3, because the basis of each is of the second class 
A subordinate element of the second class is joined to its basis by 
a connective. (See 153.) 

the mere ability to parse words. As the naturalist, in passing 
through the fields, is able to classify each individual plant that 
meets his eye, so the pupil who becomes acquainted with the 
structure of the language, will readily arrange under its propel 
division every combination of words which he reads. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 113 

240. Complex elements may be formed by 
either of the following combinations of simple 
elements : — 

EXAMPLES. 

^i t t> • • • (1 an d 1 = very quickly: 
Class I. By joining 2 y ^ ' 

t 1 and 2 =■ hope of reward. 

™ tt t> • • • (2 an( i 1 = in great haste: 
Class II. By joining \ s ' 

C 2 and 2 = with assurance of success 

Note. Classes I. and II., placed at the left, show the class of 

the complex element. (147.) The figures 1 and 2 show the 

classes of the simple elements which form the combination. The 

basis of each is in small capitals. 

Models for analyzing complex Elements. 

The ivhole course of his life has been distinguished 
by generous cations. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Course is the subject, and 

Has teen distinguished is the predicate. 

The subject, course, is limited by " the " and " whole," both 
adjective elements of the first class. It is 
also limited by the phrase " of his life," a 
complex adjective element of the second 
class, used to explain the " course." 
" Of life " is the basis. " Life " is lim- 
ited by " his," a simple adjective element 
of the first class, denoting whose life. 

The predicate, has been distinguished, is limited by the 
phrase "by generous actions" — a com- 
plex adverbial element of the second 
class, showing how the course of his life 
had ^een distinguished. The basis of the 



114 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

phrase is " by actions." "Actions" is 
limited by " generous," a simple adjective 
element of the first class, showing what 
kind of actions. 

Note. In these examples, the basis of each complex element 
is itself an element of the second class, and the phrase is formed 
by joining classes 2 -f- 1. (147.) 

The excessive labor undergone in preparing for his 
examination, occasioned a dangerous illness. 

It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one 
proposition. 

Labor is the subject, and 

Occasioned is the predicate. 

The subject, labor, is limited by " the " and " excessive," 
both simple adjective elements of the 
first class. It is also limited by " un- 
dergone in preparing for his exam- 
ination," a complex adjective element 
of the first class, ( 147, 153,) used to de- 
note the occasion or circumstance of the 
labor. " Undergone " is the basis. It 
is an adjective element of the first class, 
and belongs to "labor." (Rule V.) It 
is limited by " in preparing for his ex- 
amination," a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class, denoting how 
the labor was undergone. " In prepar- 
ing " is the basis. " Preparing " is 
limited by " for his examination," a 
complex adverbial element of the 
second class, showing for what, or why, 
he was preparing. The basis is, " for 
examination." " Examination " is lim- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 115 

ited by " his," a simple adjective ele- 
ment of the first class, showing whose 
examination. The simple elements of 
this combination may be thus repre- 
sented:— 1 -f-2 + 2+1. 
The pred., occasioned, is limited by " a dangerous illness " 
a complex objective element of the first 
class, denoting what the labor occa- 
sioned. " Illness," the basis, is the 
object of " occasioned," (Rule VIII.) 
and is limited by " a " and " danger- 
ous," both simple adjective elements of 
the first class. (103.) 

Exercise 38. 

Analyze the following sentences, and separate each 
complex element into its component parts, according to 
the model : — 

The Spartan youth were accustomed to go barefoot. 
Many a despicable wretch lies under a marble monument, 
decorated with a flattering epitaph. Italy is a large penin- 
sula, bounded on the north by the Alps. The king re- 
turned in the gleam of his arms. The chiefs gathered 
round the falling Carthon. His words reached the heart 
of Clessammor. After the denial of the charge, he with- 
drew in dignified displeasure. The prayers of David, the 
son of Jesse, are ended. Suddenly the sound of the sig- 
nal-gun broke the stillness of the night. The same is 
true of literary men. 

Write sentences, limiting the subject of each by a 
complex adjective element, which shall have for its 
basis one of the following participles or adjectives 
placed at the head of the sentence : - — 



116 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Gliding, eager, feeding, anxious, desirous, floating, con- 
scious, encircled, enriched, regardless, flying, searching, 
waiting, opening, commencing, wading, poring, finding, 
aware, awake, ambitious, indignant, robed, detained, 
amazed, confused. 

Model. Gliding along the edge of the horizon* a dis- 
tant sail sometimes attracted our attention. Eager to 
attain to the highest rank, he labored incessantly. 

Write complex elements based on the following 
nouns or infinitives used as objects, and introduce 
them into sentences of your own : — 

Laws, congress, constitution, county, work, discourse, 
fable, dialogue, catalogue, inventory, league, truce, 
country, labor ; to study ; to invite ; to leave ; to stay ; to 
sing ; to have run. 

Model. The Romans examined the laws of Solon. 

Add simple or complex elements, either of the first 
or second class, or both, to the following phrases 
used as adverbial elements : — 

In honor ; on returning ; by searching ; in the capital ; 
•through the air; on opening; to view, (inf. of purpose, 
226;) to solicit; to invite; over hills; under the wall; in 
search ; into the town ; for stealing ; of his breaking ; of 
her being sick ; of his being a scholar. 

Model. One hundred guns were fired in honor of the 
victory gained by the Americans over the British. 

Write six sentences, introducing either a complex 
adjective, objective or adverbial element, containing 
the following combinations of simple elements : — 

* Place a comma at the end of the phrase, especially if it is 
long. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 117 

2+1+2. 2 + 2+1. 2 + 2+1 + 2. 1 + 2 
+ 1. 1+2 + 2. 2 + 2 + 1 + 2+1- (See model, 
p. 114.) 

Model. He was saved by ropes . . . thrown . . .from the 
ship. 



SECTION VII. 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

241. Compound elements of the second class, 
like those of the first, are formed by uniting two 
or more similar simple or complex elements of the 
second class ; as, " To read and to write are profita- 
ble." 

Note. For connectives, see if 157, (a. b* c.) 

(a.) It should be borne in mind, that a simple element of the 
second class has a connective (179) of its own, which unites it 
subordinately to some preceding word. Besides this, the parts of 
a compound element of the second class are united to each other 
by one of the coordinate conjunctions. 

(b.) The essential point of similarity is the rank which the 
elements sustain to each other. They must be equal in rank. 
(See 150, a.) 

242. The component parts of a compound ele- 
ment should be of the same class, that is, both of 
the first or both of the second. 

Note. To this rule there may be a few exceptions ; as, " The 
pupil performed his task promptly and xoith care;" — better, 
li promptly and carefully," or " iciih promptness and with care" 

243. Compound elements may be formed by 
uniting, — 



118 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) Two or more principal elements; as, " For 
me to labor, and for you to he idle, would be un- 
just ; " "The lad was without money and with- 
out friends " — " Penniless and friendless ; " — 

(6.) Two or more subordinate elements ; as, " The 
islands of Cuba and [of] Hayii belong to the West 
Indies;" "The boy learned to read and write;" 
" You may pass through the house and garden" * 

Note. See models for analyzing compound elements, Chap 
ter I. 

Exercise 39. 

A stream of flame and smoke issued from the chimney. 
The hearts of the brothers were not divided during the 
peace and the troubles of this life. The obligation of 
respect and love for parents never ceases. Hampden 
placed himself at the head of his countrymen, and across 
the path of tyranny. To be or not to be, is the question. 
Sarah loves to sing and dance. They were stationed there 
to defend the fort, and to awe the citizens. 

Write ten sentences, introducing into them a com- 
pound element of the second class. Let the first five 
be connected by " and ; v the next three he connected 
by "but;" and the remainder, by "or" or "nor." 

Write sentences uniting the words between the semi- 
colons into a compound adjective or adverbial element 
of the second class. 

Robber, murderer ; truth, humanity ; zeal, energy; Eng- 
land, America ; Europe, Asia ; hope, fear ; day, night. 
Model. The name of the robber and murderer has 
been ascertained. 

* The preposition is generally omitted by ellipsis in the second 
phrase 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. ii9 

SECTION VIII. 

SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAME. 

244. There may be in the second, as in the 
first class, several elements of the same name, not 
connected with each other. (See 165.) 

(a.) Such elements are always subordinate, and are generally 
either adjective or adverbial. 

245. By means of the several conditions of the 
elements already explained, a simple sentence may 
be extended at pleasure. 

Exercise 40. 

An orator may often, by this kind of style, gain great 
admiration, without being nearer to his proper end. The 
unfortunate man passed from one subject to another, 
without being aware of the abruptness of his transitions. 
The coach will leave the city in the morning before sun- 
rise. Recounting the dark catalogue of abuses already 
suffered, and appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of their intentions, they shook off forever 
their allegiance to the British crown, and pronounced the 
United Colonies an independent nation. The boat will 
sail from Norwich to New York on Thursday. 

246. It will be readily perceived that the ma- 
terials employed in this chapter resemble, in their 
use, those of Chapter I. There are, — 

I. The substantive phrase, (the C ' **!*** ( 1, Predicate; 

. P v , < 2. Attribute : 2 ' 

jcf ) used is ) 9 nv , i 2. Modifier; 

* 3 Object. ' 

li. Tne aaiective parast, used a** . . . Attribute, J 

J F '(2. Modifier; 

[II. T7ie adverbial phrase, used as , . . — .... Modifier 



_y 



120 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

247. These materials, arranged in a formula, 
stand thus : — 

Adj. Element, -f- SUB. 8 PEED. -\- Obj. Ele. -f Adv. Ele. 
Infinitive, > Infin C Infinitive, > Jnfin Ady phrage 
Adj. Phrase. > C Adj. Phrase, ) 

Exercise 41. — Miscellaneous. 

King James wrote a treatise on the heinous sin of using 
tobacco. The ancients, for want of telescopes, formed 
many absurd notions of the heavenly bodies. The sun, 
according to some ancient philosophers, quenches his 
flames in the ocean. Alfred the Great was not only the 
king, but the father, of his people. I speak not of tempo- 
ral, but of eternal interests. No one ought, unnecessarily, 
to wound the feelings, or insult the religious preposses- 
sions, of his neighbors. We have taken up arms, not to 
betray, but to defend, our country. Study serves for de- 
light, for ornament, and for ability. To attempt to work 
upon the vulgar with fine sense, is like attempting to hew 
blocks of marble with a razor. One of the noblest of the 
Christian virtues is, to love our enemies. Sincerity and 
truth form the basis of every virtue. The man of genuine 
virtue must be endowed with a sagacious judgment and an 
ardent zeal. 

Write ten sentences, each containing complex or 
compound elements. 

Complete the following sentences : — 

He was formed (For what?). -The writings (Of 

whom?) were studied (By whom?) (When?) (Where?) 
(Why?). — —(What kind?) poet (Of what place?) de- 
scribes (What?) (How?). 

Write sentences containing the folio whig words. 
Let all the iverd* between the semicolons be introduced 
into a single sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 121 

Honey, bee, flower ; farmer, grain, ploughs ; ship, sailor, 
flag, mast ; lapidary, ring, diamond, gold ; skeleton, mus- 
cles, nerves ; inertia, force, momentum ; equation, terms, 
quantity ; history, chronology, era, dates ; conscience, 
judgment, intellect. 



SECTION IX. 

INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

248. An interrogative sentence is used to ask a 
question ; as, " Whom did you see ? ?? A sentence 
used to state a fact, or the possibility of a fact, is 
called a declarative sentence ; as, " I saw George; " 
" You can see George." 

249. An interrogative sentence relates either to 
the whole or a part of a corresponding declarative 
sentence, called the answer or responsive ; as, 
'• Whom did you see? Ans. John;" that is, "I 
saw John." — " Did you see John ? Ans. Yes ==; I 
did see John." 

(a.) The first question refers to only a part of the declarative 
sentence, namely, the object of the verb; but the second refers 
to the whole, and may be answered by "yes" or "no," which 
are equivalent to the entire sentence, — the former without the 
negative "not," the latter with it. 

250. A question which refers to the whole of 
the corresponding declarative sentence, is called 
direct; one which refers to only a single part of 
it, is called indirect 

11 



122 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



I.— DIRECT INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

251. A direct interrogative sentence requires an 
affirmation or denial, and is introduced by the verb 
or its auxiliary ; as, " Have you seen George ? 
Yes = I have seen George." 

(a.) Direct questions require, at the close, the upward inflec- 
tion of the voice in uttering them ; as, " Will you go' ? " 

Model for Analysis. 

Have you written 1 
It is an interrogative sentence, because it asks a ques- 
tion ; simple^ because it contains but one proposition ; 
direct ) because it requires an affirmation or denial. 

You is the subject. 

Have written . . is the predicate. 

Note. The elements of an interrogative sentence are in all 
respects like those of a declarative. 

Exercise 42. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

Are you here ? Is your brother well ? Have you 
returned ? Bid Cain kill Abel ? Is your master at home ? 
Will you ride to town to-day ? Should not merchants be 
punctual in paying their debts? Do you think him so 
base ? Have you learned the lesson ? May the children 
visit the country to-morrow ? Had the patient recovered 
on your arrival ? May we not sit under this tree ? Must 
I leave town to-morrow ? Does the bright sun grow dim 
in the heavens ? Am I my brother's keeper ? Are you 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 

going to see the elephant ? Shall I send the letter to the 
office ? Did you kill the Nemaean lion ? 

Write fifteen direct interrogative sentences, and be 
careful to place after each an interrogation point, (?) 

Convert the questions in the first part of this exer- 
cise into declarative sentences. Place a period (.) at 
the end of each. 

Model. You are here. Your brother is well. 



II. — INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

252. An indirect interrogative sentence requires, 
as its answer, that part of the declarative sentence 
to which the question relates, and is always intro- 
duced by some interrogative word ; as, (C Who 
came ? Charles = Charles came." 

Note. Study the lesson in the Appendix on interrogatives. 

253. An indirect question may refer to either 
of the five elements of a declarative sentence. 

(a.) Connectives are not referred to by interrogatives. 

254. Since the essential materials (176) of a 
sentence are of the nature of the substantive, adjec- 
tive, or adverb, we have, to inquire for them, three 
kinds of interrogative words, — 

(a.) Interrogative pronouns, which inquire for a 
substantive; as, Who? Which! What? 

(b.) Interrogative adjectives, which inquire for an 
adjective; as, What or Which (person or thing?) 
How many ? What kind ? 

(c.) Interrogative adverbs, which inquire for some 



124 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

circumstance of place, time, cause, or manner; as. 
Where? When? Why? Hoiv? 

255. As the substantive may enter into a sen- 
tence in three different relations, (subject, attribute, 
and object,) the interrogative pronoun is made, by- 
inflection, to indicate these relations. 

(a.) When the pronoun is the subject or predicate of the inter- 
rogative sentence, it inquires for the subject or predicate of the 
answer; as, " Who comes? Charles = Charles comes." "Who 
is it? Charles = It is Charles." In like manner, v/hen the pro- 
noun is the adjective, objective, or adverbial element of the ques- 
tion, it inquires for the same in the answer) as, " Whose book 
was torn? Peter' s = Peter's book was torn." " Whom did you 
see? David = I saw David." u With whom did you study? 
With Francis = 1 studied with Francis." 

256. The adjective used as predicate is inquired 
for by How? as, u How is Charles ? Well = Charles 
is well" The verbal attribute is inquired for by 
What . ... do? or What .... doing? as, « What 
did James do ? James wrote" " What is James 
doing? James is writing?" The adjective used 
as a modifier is inquired for by What kind ? if it 
denotes quality ; How many ? if it denotes number ; 
Which or What joined to the noun which the adjec- 
tive limits in the answer, if it limits merely; as, 
"Which pen shall I use? This, that, &c.,pen. 

257. The adverbial element is used only as a 
modifier, and is inquired for by Where ? Whither ? 
Whence ? for the three relations of place ; When ? 
How long ? How often ? for the three relations of 
time ; Why ? for cause ; and How ? or Hoiv much ? 
for manner. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 

258. The indirect object and the adverbial ele- 
ment are often inquired for by Whatl or Whom! 
preceded by a preposition; as, " To whom (whom) 
did you write?" "In ivhat (wherein) does he 
excel ? " 

(a.) The following are the principal interrogatives brought 
together : — 

1. Those which inquire for a substantive: — Who? Which? 
What? 

2. Those which inquire for an adjective : — How many ? What 
kind ? What do* or doing ? * How ? 

3. Those which inquire for an adverb : — Where ? Whither ? 
Whence? When? How long? How often? JVJiy? Where- 
fore ? How ? How much ? also, In what ? Through what ? &c. 

(b.) These interrogatives become connectives when the inter- 
rogative sentence is made a subordinate part of another sentence ; 
as, "I know not how he came." 

Model for Analysis and Parsing. 

Where does he live ? Ans. In Boston. 

It is an interrogative sentence, because it asks a question ; 
simple, because it contains but one proposition ; indirect, 
because it refers to a part of a corresponding declarative 
sentence — " in Boston." 

He is the subject. 

Does live ... is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited by " where," an adverbial ele- 
ment of the first class, inquiring for place. 

Where is an interrogative adverb, and belongs to 

" does live ; " according to Rule IX. 

* Relating to the attributive part of a verb, i. e., the participle, 
*vhich is a species of adjective. (65, a.) 

n* 



126 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 



Exercise 43. 



Analyze the following interrogative sentences, and 
parse the interrogative words : — 

Who came in yesterday ? Who reported the doings of 
congress ? Whose hat is this ? Whose knife have I 
found ? Whom did you visit ? Whom did the president 
nominate ? Which book did you take ? What name 
have his parents given him ? What news have you 
heard ? How many soldiers were killed in the battle ? 
What kind of people first inhabited England ? What is 
Charles doing ? How is he ? When shall you visit the 
Springs ? When did he cancel the debt ? How long did 
he stay ? How often does George visit his mother ? 
Where is the promised fruit of all his toil ? Whence 
comes this tumult ? Whither are you going ? Why do 
you weave around you this thread of occupation ? How- 
did you come ? In what way do you intend to go ? To 
whom shall I deliver the message ? At what time shall 
we send the letter ? 

Write answers to the above sentences, and draw 
a line under that fart to which the question refers. 
Be careful to change the (?) to a (.) 

Model. David came in yesterday. 

Write sentences introduced by the following inter- 
rogate es : — 

Why ? On what account ? Where ? When ? Whose ? 
Of whom ? On what ? Whither ? Whence ? In what 
place ? How many ? Whom ? Which ? In consideration 
of what ? On what condition ? How ? Wherein ? By 
what ? Over whom ? On what ? Under what ? Through 
what ? On whose account ? 
Write an answer to each, 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 127 

CHAPTER III. 

(COMPLEX SE>~TE>'CES.) 

ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. — SUBOR. 
DINATE CLAUSES. 



SECTION I. 
NATURE OF ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 

259. Instead of a word or phrase, an entire prop- 
osition is often used as one of the five elements of 
a sentence ; as, " When spring comes, the flowers 
will bloom." 

260. A proposition thus used is called subordi- 
nate, because it depends upon another, which, in 
reference to it, is called principal. 

261. An element of the third class is, therefore, 
a subordinate proposition used as the constituent 
part of a sentence. (10, 178.) 

(a.) It will be seen, first, that tcords and phrases may be 
united so as to form a simple sentence ; and, secondly, that this 
sentence may lose its distinctness, and become an organic part 
of another sentence. 

262. The propositions which unite to form a 
sentence are called clauses. 

263. A complex sentence is formed by uniting a 
principal and a subordinate clause. 



128 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) A complex sentence is formed by uniting two dissimilar 
simple sentences, just as a complex element is formed by uniting 
two dissimilar (146) simple elements. 

I.— COMPONENT PARTS OF THE SUBORDINATE 
CLAUSE. 

264. The parts which are essential to a subordi- 
nate clause are, a connective, a subject, and a predicate. 

265. The connective is called subordinate, be- 
cause it renders the proposition which follows it 
subordinate to some part of the principal proposi- 
tion with which it is connected. 

(a.) The connective is as much a part of the subordinate prop- 
osition as the preposition is a part of a phrase. In fact, the same 
word is often used in one construction to connect a phrase, and 
in another to connect a clause ; as, " The ship sailed before sun- 
rise " = a The ship sailed before the sun rose." 

266. These connectives are parsed by the fol- 
lowing rule : — 

Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are 
used to join dissimilar elements. 

267. The subject or predicate of a subordi- 
nate proposition may be limited by an element of 
the first, second, or third class. 

(a.) When the subject or predicate of a subordinate clause is 
limited by another clause, the latter is subordinate in the second 
degree. (See 145, b.) 

It— THE CLAUSE CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 

268. The subordinate clause, like a single word 
or phrase, may form either of the five elements of 
a sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 129 

269. Subordinate clauses are divided, according 
to their nature and use, into substantive, adjective, 
and adverbial (176, 188.) 

270. A substantive clause is a substantive or an 
infinitive expanded into a proposition ; as, " Steal- 
ing is base " = " To steal is base" = "T/W one 
should steal is base." 

271. An adjective clause is an adjective, partici- 
ple, or adjective phrase, expanded into a proposition ; 
as, " A generous man = a man of generosity = a 
man who is generous, will be honored." 

272. An adverbial clause is an adverb, or adver- 
bial phrase, expanded into a proposition ; as, " The 
ship sailed early = before sunrise = before the sun 
rose." 

III.— USES OF THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE. 

273. The substantive clause, like the substan- 
tive, (176,) may become the subject, attribute, or 
object, of a sentence. 

274. Substantive clauses are of two kinds, — 
those which contain a statement, and those which 
contain an inquiry. 

275. Those which contain a statement, are in- 
troduced by that, that not, and sometimes but, or 
but that ; as, " That you have wronged me, doth 
appear in this." 

276. Clauses which contain an inquiry are in- 
troduced by the several interrogatives. (258, a.) 

277. In the use of interrogative clauses in a 
complex sentence, there are two cases: — 

(a.) The interrogative may be the principal 



130 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

clause. The sentence is then a complex interroga- 
tive sentence ; as, " Do you know that your sister 
has returned ? " 

(b.) The interrogative may be the subordinate 
clause. The sentence is then a complex declara- 
tive sentence ; as, " Your father inquired, when I 
had heard from Madras." 

278. When the principal clause is interrogative, 
the interrogation point should always be placed 
at the end of the sentence j but when the subor- 
dinate clause is interrogative, the period should be 
placed at the end of the sentence, except when the 
subordinate clause is a direct quotation. (See 299.) 

( a.) When an interrogative sentence is made subordinate, and 
becomes an organic part of another sentence, it loses, in a meas- 
ure, its interrogative character; unless quoted (299) directly. 
There is often a change of person, and generally a change of ar- 
rangement; as, "How did you obtain the situation?" "He 
asked me how /obtained the situation." 

(5.) The interrogative becomes the connective to the subordi- 
nate clause. Hence, when interrogative pronouns are used as 
connectives, they should be carefully distinguished from relative 
pronouns, which are used as the connectives of adjective clauses. 
Compare " I know not who did it," with "I know not the man 
who did it." 



SECTION II. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS PRINCIPAL 
ELEMENTS. 

279. When a subordinate clause is used as the 
subject or predicate of a complex sentence, it be- 
comes a principal element of the third class. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 131 

280. The substantive clause only can be used 
as a principal element. 

l.— THE SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSE AS SUBJECT. 

281. The substantive clause, like the substan- 
tive or substantive phrase, may become the subject 
of a sentence; as, "That the earth revolves on its 
axis, has been clearly proved." 

282. By the idiom mentioned in IT 196, the sub- 
stantive clause, as subject, is first represented by it 
standing at the head of the sentence, and is itself 
placed after the predicate ; as, " It has been clearly 
proved that the earth revolves on its axis" 

Models for Analysis and Parsing. 

Who was the author of Juniush Letters, has never 
been satisfactorily determined. 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains a principal 
and a subordinate clause. 

Who was the author of Junius' s "Letters, is the subject of 
the principal clause. 

Has been determined is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited by " satisfactorily," an ad- 
verbial element of the first class, de- 
noting manner. 

Who vjos the author, &c., is a principal element of the third 
class. It is used as a noun, third 
person,. singular number, neuter gen- 
der, nominative case, and is the sub- 
ject of the sentence; according to 
hulel. 



132 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Who is the subject of the subordinate 

clause, and 

Was author is the predicate. 

Author is limited first by " the," and second- 
ly by " of Junius's Letters." 

WJio is an interrogative pronoun, used in a 

subordinate clause. It has no ante- 
cedent. It is of the third person, 
singular number, masculine gender, 
nominative case, and is the subject of 
" was ; " according to rule IV. It 
connects the two dissimilar clauses, 
according to Rule XVI. 
Note. " Who was author" may be considered as the gram- 
matical subject of the complex sentence, and " Who was the au- 
thor of Junius 's Letters" the logical subject. The connection of 
who will be best seen by using the idiom in H 282. 

Exercise 44. 

Analyze the following complex sentences according 
to the model : — 

That the earth is a sphere, is easily proved. That honor 
and fame are the offspring of labor, is the eternal law of 
nature. That sorrow robed the happy home in mourning, 
was enough. That no man is justified by the law in the 
sight of God, is evident. Whether the truth will be made 
to appear, is uncertain. That a peculiar insensibility exists 
to the obligations of the parental and filial relation, is too 
evident to need any extended illustration. That children 
may grow up as they please, seems to be the prevalent 
opinion. Where the robber concealed his stolen treasures, 
has never been ascertained. When letters were first used, 
is not certain, Why he resigned his office, will soon be 
made known. How he made his escape, is a mystery. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 133 

From what place he came, cannot be ascertained. In what 
manner he did it, is wholly unknown. Who gave the in- 
formation, has been ascertained. Will he do it? is the 

question. 

Write the above sentences, and introduce each by 
"it." 

Model. It is the eternal law of nature, that honor and 
fame are the offspring of labor. 

Write substantive clauses to complete the following ; 
and then change them so as to place the subject- before 
the predicate, dispensing with " it : " — 

It is evident. It is uncertain. It appears. It has been 
ascertained. It is mysterious. It is well known. It will 
be shown. It is true. It is probable. It was denied by 
none. 

Model. It is evident that the bill will be defeated =z 
That the bill will be defeated, is evident. 

Expand the following substantives and infini- 
tives, with the words joined to them in Italics, into 
substantive clauses used as subjects: — 

To swear is impious. To err is human. The utility 
of the telegraph is acknowledged. The name of the swim- 
mer is not known. Your abuse of my brother is repre- 
hensible. The place of Ms concealment has not been de • 
termined. The time of the boat's arrival was well known. 
For him to eat unripe fruit was presumption. The cause 
of his delay is unknown. The immortality of the sold h 
universally believed. TJie paleness of the ink is apparent 
The authenticity of the Scriptures has been clearly proved. 

Model. TJxat one should swear, is impious. That the 
telegraph is useful, is acknowledged. 
12 



134 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Reduce any twelve of the preceding substantive 
clauses to nouns or infinitives. 

Model. The sphericity of the earth is easily proved. 

II. — THE PREDICATE. 

283. The substantive clause may become the 

predicate-nominative after to be ; as, " His pretext 

was, that he misunderstood the design of the leader." 

Note. This construction will not need a separate model, 
since it is like the model on the 29th page, with the exception 
that the predicate-nominative is expanded into a clause. See 
also the preceding model. 

Exercise 45. 

Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse 
the predicates : — 

My desire is, that you may succeed. The question is, 
How shall the treasury be replenished ? His pretence was, 
that the storm of the preceding evening prevented his 
attendance. Our hope is, that no such results will follow. 
Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed the mountain. 
His remark was, that such service is exceedingly humil- 
iating. The promise made him was, that he should visit 
his friends the coming autumn. My determination is, that 
you shall attend school in the country. 

Write complex sentences to the following subjects, 
and let the predicates be substantive clauses. 

Question, answer, recommendation, proposal, design, 
words, orders, resolution. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 135 



SECTION III. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADJECTIVE 
ELEMENT. 

284. Whenever a clause is used to limit a noun 
or pronoun in either of the ways mentioned in 
IT 96, (a. b. c. d.) it is an adjective element of the third 
class; as, "A man who is industrious, will gain 
respect." 

(a.) The adjective element of the third class asserts (in a sub 
ordinate way) what, in either of the other classes, is assumed. 
Compare " a man who is industrious,' 1 with " a man of indus- 
try " or "an industrious man." 

285. A noun may be limited either by an adjec- 
tive clause or a substantive clause used as an ad- 
jective. 

1. — ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

286. Adjective clauses are introduced by relative 
pronouns, which serve to connect them with a 
limited noun or pronoun which is called the antece- 
dent ; as, " The evil that men do lives after them." 

(a.) The relative pronoun refers to some limiting adjective in 
the principal clause, either expressed or understood, called its cor- 
relative; as, " That book which you have was printed in 1760." 

287. The relative pronouns are, — 
Who, relating to a. person; — 
Which, relating to a thing ; — 

That, relating to either a person or thing ; — and 






136 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

What, whatever, whatsoever, whoever, whosoever, 
whichever, and whichsoever, called compound 
pronouns, because they represent both the an- 
tecedent and relative. 

(a.) Who is sometimes used as a compound pronoun; as, 
" Who steals my purse, steals trash." 

(b.) The relatives, with their correlatives, may be thus repre- 
sented : — 

CORREL. REL. 

The, \ r Who. 

This, that, \ Person (s) or thing (s) / Which, 
These, those, ) ( That. 

288. The agreement of the relative is deter- 
mined by the following rule : — 

Rule XVII. The relative must agree with 
its antecedent in person, number, and gender, 
but not in case. 

( a.) When the antecedent is compound, the relative agrees with 
it by Rule XII. (161 ;) when it is a collective noun, the rule which 
applies to the verb (69, b.) is equally applicable to the pronoun. 

289. The case of the relative depends upon the 
construction of the adjective clause. 

(a.) The relative may be the subject (56) of the adjective 
clause ; as, " The tempest which was raging with unwonted fury, 
drove them to the nearest shelter." In this relation of the pro- 
noun, the adjective clause may be equivalent, 1st, to an adjective 
or participle denoting some property of the antecedent, (96, b.) ; 
as, " A man who perseveres will be honored " = " A persevering 
man will be honored ; " — 2d, to a noun or pronoun in apposition, 
(96, c.) ; as, " Paul, who was an apostle, visited Rome " = " Paul, 
an apostle, visited Rome ; " 3d, to a noun in the possessive case, 
(96, d.) ; as, " Solomon's temple was destroyed " = " The temple 
which Solomon built was destroyed." 

(b.) The relative may become the adjective element of its 
clause ; as, " The gentleman whose aid was solicited has left 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 137 

town." In this relation of the pronoun, the antecedent or lim- 
ited word is represented as a possessor ; the relative is parsed 
by Rule VIII. , page 55. 

(c.) The relative may become the objective element (117) of its 
clause ; as, " The book which I purchased is damaged." In this re- 
lation of the relative, the adjective clause is equivalent to the pas- 
sive participle; as, "The book purchased by me was damaged." 

(d.) The relative with a preposition may become the adverbial 
element (217) of the adjective clause ', as, " The house in zohich 
he lived has passed into other hands." In this relation of the 
relative pronoun, the adjective clause/is equivalent to an adjective 
denoting place, time, cause, or manner. The preposition is not 
unfrequently placed at the end of the clause ; as, " The house 
which he lived in has passed," &c. 

Note. It not unfrequently happens, that the adjective clause, 
in this last case, assumes the form of an adverbial clause, an 
equivalent relative adverb taking the place of the relative pro- 
noun and preposition ; as, " The time in which Priam lived is 
uncertain "=." The time when Priam lived," &c. When the 
antecedent is suppressed, such clauses are strictly adverbial. 

290. Compound relatives represent both the 
antecedent and relative ; as, " What cannot be 
cured must be endured " = " That which cannot be 
cured must be endured." 

(a.) In such examples as the last, the antecedent and adjective 
clause which limits it, are equivalent to a substantive ; as, " An 
incurable evil must be endured." The compound relative, as 
antecedent, is the subject of " must be endured ; " as relative, is 
the subject of "can be cured." Sometimes it is the subject of 
one verb, and the object of the other. 

291. By an ellipsis of the relative pronoun, as 
takes its place after such, many, and same; as. 
" Such as I have give I unto you " == " Such as 
that is which I have give/' &c. 

292. Relative pronouns often relate, not to a 
word, but to a preceding phrase or clause; as, 

12* 



138 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

" The boy closed the blinds, which darkened the 
room." 

293. Clauses introduced by relative pronouns 
are sometimes nearly equivalent to independent 
clauses connected by " and." The relative, in such 
cases, is equivalent to "and he," "and she," or 
"and it; " as, "He gave me a book, which he re- 
quested me to read " = " He gave me a book, and 
requested me to read it." 

II.— SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 

294. A substantive clause is often used to ex- 
plain the meaning of a noun ; as, " The question 
how we shall obtain funds, has never been raised ; " 
" The hope that he should soon be released, sustained 
him." 

(a.) The substantive clause, thus used, resembles the noun in 
apposition, and may be considered as bearing the same relation to 
the construction in IT 283 as the noun in apposition does to the 
predicate-nominative, IF 60, (a.) 

Models for Analysis. 

A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks 
for it in vain elsewhere. 

It is a complex sentence, because it contains two 
dissimilar clauses. 

Man is the subject of the principal 

clause. 

Seeks is the predicate. 

The subject is limited by " a," also by the clause 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 139 

u who finds not satisfaction in him- 
self," an adjective element of the 
third class, describing " man," ( 103. ) 

The complex subject . . is " A man who finds not satisfac- 
tion in himself." 

The predicate is limited by " for it," i( in vain," 

and " elsewhere." (Give the name 
and class of each.) 

The complex predicate is " seeks for it in vain elsewhere." 

Who is the subject of the adjective clause. 

Finds is the predicate. 

The predicate is limited, first, by " not ; " sec- 
ondly, by "satisfaction;" and 
thirdly, by " in himself." (Give 
the name and class of each.) 

Who . . . is a relative pronoun, of the third 

person, singular number, masculine 
gender, according to Rule XVII. ; is 
the subject of the proposition " who 
finds," &c, according to Rule I., 
and connects this proposition with 
" man," the subject of the principal 
clause, according to Rule XVI. 



Exercise 46. 

Analyze the following examples, and parse the rel- 
ative pronouns : — 

The rewards which are promised, shall be given. Can- 
not the man who is faithfully attached to religion be relied 
on with confidence ? He whom I loved is dead. Will 
not those who raise envy incur censure ? The globe on 
which we live, is but a planet. Xerxes, upon whom For- 



140 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

tune had lavished all her favors, proposed a reward to the 
inventor of a new pleasure. Whatever violates nature 
cannot be innocent. Whoever forgets a benefit, is an 
enemy to society. Will not he whose desires are bound- 
less, always be restless ? The assumption that our cause 
is declining, is utterly gratuitous. The opinion that chil- 
dren may grow up as they please, seems to prevail. The 
reason why he left his mother in such peril, has never 
been satisfactorily given. 

Write twenty sentences, limiting the subject of each 
by an adjective clause. In Jive, let the relative be the 
subject of its clause ; in five, let it be the adjective 
element ; in five, the objective element ; and in five, 
let it be an adverbial element. Let ten of the sen- 
tences be interrogative. 

Reduce the adjective clauses in the first part of this 
exercise to simple or complex elements of the first or 
second class. 

Model. The promised rewards shall be given. 

Convert the following simple sentences into complex 
sentences, by expanding the Italicized adjective ele- 
ments into clauses : — 

The pride of wealth is contemptible. The well-bred man 
desires only to please. Reproof given in public hardens 
the heart. Milton the poet was blind. The sun, vicege- 
rent of his power, shall rend the veil of parting night, A 
cottage shaded with trees is a pleasant object. The but- 
terfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. Caesar, the 
enslaver of his country, was stabbed in the senate-house. 
The house of my father stands near the road. My brothers 
dog was killed. 

Model. The pride which wealth begets is contemptible. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 141 

Change them to interrogative sentences. 
Model. Is not the pride which wealth begets con- 
temptible ? 
Write complex sentences to the following compound 
subjects, limiting each by an adjective clause : — 

The boy or the girl. The sun and moon. James or 
John. The fox and the geese. Not the servant, but the 
master. Susan, and not the sister. Neither the man nor 
the woman. Those books or slates. This boy or his 
parents. Some insect or reptile. Those trees or shrubs. 

Model. The boy or the girl who painted this picture 
deserves much praise. 



SECTION IV. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE OBJECTIVE 
ELEMENT. 

295. When a clause is used to complete the 
meaning of a transitive verb, it is an objective element 
of the third class ; as, " I perceive that you have or- 
dered a supply ." 

1. — SINGLE OBJECT. 

296. Substantive clauses in the objective, gen- 
erally follow verbs denoting, — 1st. Some act or state 
of the mind (as perception, emotion, or will ;) — 
2d. A declaration, order, or statement ; as, " I wish 
that you would assist me;" " The farmer declared 



142 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

that his watch had gained half an hour in the 
night." 

(a.) The following are some of the verbs of the first class : — 
see, hear, feel, know, think,perceive, wish, anticipate, pray, entreat, 
desire, imagine, suppose, expect, hope, fear, suspect, understand, 
&c. The following are of the second : — say, declare, tell, an' 
nounce, relate, assert, affirm, proclaim, report, state, notify, show, 
reply, answer, respond, foretell, deny, order, command, direct. 

297. Substantive clauses may follow adjectives, 
and even nouns, derived from these verbs ; as, " I 
am desirous that you should visit the country ; " 
" A wish that you might participate in our joy, has 
led me to make you this offer." 

Note. For the classes of substantive clauses, and their con- 
nectives, see IT 274, 276. 

298. To objective clauses properly belong the 
forms of language called 

Direct and Indirect Quotation. 

299. When we quote the language of another, 
we may either represent him as uttering his own 
words, or we may narrate them for him ; as, "He 
said, ' I will do it ) *> — '" He said that he would do it" 
The former is called direct, and the latter indirect, 
quotation. 

(a.) In direct quotation, the quotation marks ( " " ) should be 
used. In indirect quotation, the connective that should intro- 
duce the quotation, (unless it be a question.) The person of the 
subject, the mode and tense of the verb, and the arrangement of 
the parts, should be changed, if necessary. (See example above.) 

(&.) Instead of a single clause, sometimes whole pages are 
quoted as the object of a transitive verb. • 

(c.) Direct quotation approaches much nearer to a coordinate 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 143 

rank with the principal clause, than indirect. The subordinate 
connective that is never used; and when the quoted language 
is a question, the interrogation point should always be employed. 
( d.) Both direct and indirect quotation, instead of being the 
object of a verb, may often be put in apposition with some noun ; 
as, " The question how we shall do it, has never been asked " = 
" The question, « How shall we do it ? ' " has never been asked. 

300. The principal clause is often thrown in be- 
tween the parts of a direct quotation ; as, " \ For all 
that,' said the pendulum, 'it is very dark here.' " 

301. The quotation often becomes the principal 
clause, and the principal is made a subordinate- 
adverbial clause, introduced by as to denote the 
authority on which the quoted assertion is made ; 
as, " He left, as he told me, before the arrival of the 
steamer." 

Note. Such subordinate clauses are nearly allied to modal ad- 
verbs. In such constructions, the quotation marks are not to be 
used. 

302. Direct quotation can be changed to indirect, 
by removing the quotation marks, inserting a con- 
nective, and making the requisite changes of person, 
mode, tense, and arrangement. (11 299, a.) 



II. — DOUBLE OBJECT. 

303. Besides an objective clause, certain verbs 

take an indirect object, either with or without a 

preposition ; as, " We told him that he ivas in dan- 

ger ; " " He intimated to me that my services would 

soon be needed." 

(a) It will be seen that a single objective clause is equiva- 
lent to two objects like those mentioned in 11 120 and 210, The 



144 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

former becomes its subject, and the latter its predicate ; as, " I 
believed him an honest man " = "I believed that he was an honest 
man. 71 " I wish you to go " = " I wish that you would go." 

(&.) Sometimes the substantive clause itself is an indirect 
object ; — 1st. Without a preposition ; as, " I was informed that 
he had arrived = of his arrival; " — 2d, With a preposition ; as, 
" I was speaking of how we should cancel the demand; " "Much 
will depend on who the commissioners arc" 

304. When the principal verb assumes the pas- 
sive form, the objective clause becomes the subject, 
but commonly remains after the predicate, being 
represented by it placed at the beginning of the 
sentence, (282 ;) as, " He said that the measure 
could never be adopted" = " It was said (by him) 
that the measure could never be adopted." 

Model for Analyzing and Parsing. 

Do you know that you have wronged him? 

Tt is a complex sentence, because it is composed of dis- 
similar clauses; interrogative, because it asks a ques- 
tion ; direct, because it requires an affirmation or denial. 

You ....... is the subject of the principal clause. 

Do know .... is the predicate. 

The predicate . is limited by " that you have wronged 
him," an objective element of the third 
class, denoting what is known. It is used 
as a noun, third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and is the object of " do 
know," according to Rule VIII. " Do 
know that you have wronged him," is the 
complex predicate. 

You is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Have wronged is the predicate. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 145 

The predicate . is limited by " him," a simple objective 
element, &c. 

That is a subordinate conjunction, and connects 

the substantive clause, " you have wronged 
him," to the predicate of the principal 
clause, " know," according to Rule XVI. 

Exercise 47. 

Analyze the following propositions according to 
the model : — 

I believed that all these objects existed within me. I 
know not whether he will go. Will you tell me whom you 
saw on the Mall ? We knew whose place was vacated. 
I knew not where I was. Will you tell me why you are 
sad? The teacher showed me wherein I had erred. My 
uncle explained how the seasons are produced. Will you 
show me why we invert the divisor ? "I admire," said 
Aristodemus, " Homer for his epic poetry." " I always 
thought," said he, " that philosophy served to make men 
happier." They said, " Thou hast saved our lives." 
" King of Morven," Carthon said, " I fall in the midst of 
my course." They say that they have bought it. The 
truly great consider, first, how they may gain the approba- 
tion of God. He inquired, " Who comes there ? " 

Write ten sentences, and let each contain an ob- 
jective clause illustrating direct quotation. Change 
each to the form of indirect quotation, and change 
five of them^into interrogative sentences. 

Model. " I have endeavored," said Socrates, " through- 
out life, to do nothing unjust " = Socrates said that 
he had endeavored, throughout life, to do nothing 
unjust. Did not Socrates say that he had endeav- 
ored, &c. ? 

13 



146 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Convert the following objects, with their attributes, 
into objective clauses : — 

I thought him honest. I wish you to inform me of the 
fact. We desired her to stay. The general commanded 
the army to march. The ancients believed the earth to be 
a vast plain. Some suppose the planets to be inhabited. 
The lunatic often imagines himself a king. 

Model. I thought that he was honest. 

Expand the following nouns, with the ivords belong- 
ing to them in Italics, into objective clauses : — 

I forgot the time of the lecture. Socrates taught the im- 
mortality of the sold. Do you believe the truth of these 
reports ? Explain the cause of the tides. Show me the 
mode of its operation. We anticipate a pleasant day. 
The officer found the place of his concealment. Did you 
hear of his illness ? Who told you of our success ? I 
wish to go. He expects to be appointed. Will you tell us 
the object of this meeting ? The heathen believe in a plu- 
rality of gods. 

Write complex sentences, employing the following 
words, and let the two words between the semicolons 
be the subjects, the first of the principal clause, 
and the second of the subordinate clause : — 

Fox, grapes ; boy, ink ; Solomon, wisdom ; poet, man ; 
teacher, pupils ; Washington, nation ; Columbus, conti- 
nent ; brother, hand ; father, son ; George, geography ; 
general, army. 

Model. The fox said that the grapes were sour. 

Select ten sentences from your History, or any other 
booh, containing objective clauses. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 147 

Change the verbs of any jive of the above examples 
to the passive form, (304.) 



SECTION V. 

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES USED AS THE ADVERBIAL 
ELEMENT. 

305. A clause added to the predicate to denote 
some circumstance connected with it is an adverbial 
element of the third class ; as, " I was agreeably de- 
ceived, as I approached the place" 

306. An adverbial clause is introduced by some 
conjunction, or conjunctive adverb, which relates to 
some adverb, expressed or understood, in the prin- 
cipal clause, called its correlative ; as, " We must go 
(thither) whither the master leads." 

(a.) The connective and its correlative are equivalent to two 
phrases ; as, " I will go where he lives " = " I will go to the place, 
(there) in which (where) he lives." 

307. Adverbial clauses, like their corresponding 
adverbs, or phrases, may denote place, time, cause, or 
manner. 

Model for Analysis. 

When the wicked are multiplied, transgression in 

creaseth. 

It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) 

Transgression is the subject of the principal clause. 

In creaseth . is the predicate. 



148 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The predicate . is limited by " when the wicked are multi- 
plied," an adverbial element of the third 
class, denoting time. (See Rule IX.) The 
complex predicate is, " increaseth when 
the wicked are multiplied." 

Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. 

Are multiplied is the predicate. 

When is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive 

adverb of time,) and joins the adverbial 
clause which it introduces to the predicate 
of the principal clause, according to Rule 
XVI. It limits " are multiplied " and 
" increaseth," according to Rule IX. 

I.— CLAUSES DENOTING PLACE. 

308. The three relations of place (128, 218) 
are indicated by whither, whence, and where; as, 
" Wnere your treasure is, there will your heart be 
also.'' 

309. Some adverbs of place admit of compari- 
son ; as, " The prisoner reached as far as his chain 
would allow," or, " no farther than his chain," &c. 

(a.) The principal conjunctive adverbs of place are, where, 
whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever ; and the phrases, as far 
as, as long as, farther than. 

Exercise 48. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

The soldiers stopped where night overtook them. Where 
your treasure is, there will your heart be also. Whereso- 
ever the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered to- 
gether, I will go whither you direct. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 149 

Where'er we tread, 'tis haunted, holy ground. Where 
true religion has prevented one crime, false religions have 
afforded a pretext for a thousand. Where all is merce- 
nary, nothing can be magnanimous. Thou knevvest that 1 
reap where I sowed not ! Whither I go, ye cannot come. 
I travelled where disappointment smiles at hope's career. 
Where there is no law, there is no transgression. 

"Where the olive leaves were twinkling in every wind that blew, 
There sat beneath the pleasant shade a damsel of Peru. 

Let me alone, that I may take comfort a little before I go 

whence I shall not return. 

Write ten sentences, introducing an adverbial 
clause denoting place, 

II.— CLAUSES DENOTING TIME. 

310. Adverbial clauses denoting time are con- 
nected with their principal clauses by conjunctive 
adverbs of time. 

311. These adverbial clauses, like adverbs, or 
adverbial phrases of time, answer the questions, 
When ? How long 1 How often 1 

(a.) The last of these relations (How often?) is generally ex- 
pressed by comparison. " I will go as often as you send for me." 

312. Adverbial clauses denoting time, like 
phrases, mark a specified time, (79, a.) antecedent 
to, simultaneous with, or subsequent to, the event 
expressed by the principal verb. 

EXAMPLE. 

C before the mail arrived. 
Edward was writing 2 ivhen the mail arrived. 
^ after the mail arrived. 
13* 



150 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Note. See table, U 79, (c.) and form a similar one, in which an 
adverbial clause shall mark the specified time. 

313. Clauses, like phrases, may denote a, point, 
a period, or frequency, of time. 

(a.) The principal conjunctive adverbs denoting time are, 
when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, ivhen- 
cver ; and the phrases, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the in- 
stant, no sooner . . .than. 

(b.) The following table will show the different relations of 
these connectives : — 

Point . . . . = when, as, whenever, as 
soon as. 

1, Time simultaneous. / Period . . . = while, whilst, as long as. 
Frequency = as often as,* as frequent- 
ly as. 
r Point . . . . = before, ere. 

II. Time antecedent. . . ) Period • • • = m * untiL 

) Frequency = as often as, as frequently 

as. 
r Point . . . . = after. 

III. Time subsequent. . . ) Period . . . = since. 

) Frequency == as often as, as frequently 
as. 
(c.) While, whilst, and as long as, denote the duration, till and 
until, the commencement, and since, the termination, of a period. 

(d.) In clauses denoting time, there is often an ellipsis of the 
subject and verb ; as, " When reflecting with grief and astonish- 
ment upon this great change, 1 felt a degree of pain." 

Exercise 49. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
connectives : — 

A dervise was journeying alone in the desert, when two 

* Frequency can apply to the present only when it denotes a 
customary act ; as, " I visit the city as often as twice a year." 
(See note, p. 106.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 151 

merchants suddenly met him. When the million applaud 
you, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. 
When you have nothing to say, say nothing. Crom- 
well followed little events, before he ventured to gov- 
ern great ones. The age of miracles is past, while that 
of prejudice remains. When articles rise, the consumer 
is the first that suffers. At length, the dial instituted 
a formal inquiry as to the cause of the stagnation, when 
hands, wheels, weights, with one voice, protested their in- 
nocence. 

And all the muse's tales seem truly told, 

Till the sense aches with gazing. 

The moment the boat touched the shore, he was on " terra 
firma." As we were walking together, we met a stranger. 
I have not visited the city since we dissolved our partner- 
ship. As soon as we came in sight, the birds were fright- 
ened from the tre;\ T will remain until you return. 

Write twelve comp, " sentences, introducing the 
subordinate clauses, by the connectives mentioned in 
IT 313, (a.) 

Write appropriate clauses, denoting time, to each of 
the following sentences : — 

I saw the smouldering ruins. We heard a distant cry. 
Will you answer my letter? The child may attend 
school. Migratory birds return to the north. You may 
play. How old were you ? We should aid our friends. 

Write five complex interrogative sentences, and 
let the dependent clause denote time. 

III.— CLAUSES DENOTING CAUSAL RELATIONS. 

314. These subordinate clauses may be consid- 
ered under four divisions : — - 



152 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) Causal, — or those which denote a cause or 
reason ; — 

(b.) Conditional, — or those which denote a 
condition ; — 

(c. ) Fmal, — or those which denote ^purpose ; — 

(d.) Adversative, — or those which denote a 
cause or reason conceded, as opposed to a result. 

Clauses which denote a Cause or Reason. 

315. There are two modes of representing the 
relation of causal clauses : — 

(a.) When the conclusion or inference is stated, 
and sustained by some cause or reason, the latter 
clause is called causal, and is connected with the 
principal clause by because, for, as, whereas, since, 
and inasmuch as; as, "It must have rained last 
night, for the ground is wet" 

(b.) When the cause or reason is stated in an 
independent proposition, and a conclusion or in- 
ference is deduced from it, the latter clause is called 
deductive or illative, and is commonly connected 
with the preceding by a coordinate conjunction, to 
show its grammatical relation, and by therefore, 
wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, or then, to 
show its logical or causal relation ; as, " The coun- 
try is infested with wolves, and therefore the 
sheepfolds should be secured." 

Note. The coordinate conjunction is often omitted; as, 
" The future is uncertain ; therefore employ the present wisely." 
These clauses will be more fully considered in the chapter on 
coordinate clauses. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 153 

316. Deductive clauses may be changed to 
causal, or causal to deductive, by reversing the or- 
der of statement ; as, " The sheepfolds should be 
secured, for the country is infested with wolves " — 
" The country is infested with wolves ; therefore 
the sheepfolds should be secured." 

(a.) Therefore is properly the correlative of the subordinate 
connectives because, for, &c. 

Exercise 50. 
Analyze the following sentences, and point out 
the causal clauses : — 

A peace which consults the good of both parties, is the 
firmest, because both parties are interested in its preserva- 
tion. We hate some persons, because we do not know 
them. As retreat was now impossible, Colter turned the 
head of the canoe. People are happy because they are 
good. Ye receive me not, because ye know him not. 
Since you have been intrusted with such treasures, you 
ought to practise the utmost vigilance. Because the wick- 
ed do not receive their just deserts immediately, they grow 
bold in transgression. 

Write causal clauses to each one of the connec- 
tives, because, for, as, since, whereas, inasmuch as. 

Change all the above examples to deductive clauses. 
(See 316.) 

Take the corresponding exercise (p. 107) in Chap- 
ter II , and change all the phrases which admit of it 
into causal clauses. 

Write clauses which shall give a reason for the 
following statements : — 

The tides rise. The moon is eclipsed. We left the 



154 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

city. We should acquire knowledge. We should form 
good habits in youth. You should honor your parents. 
Let us shun the company of the vicious. Improve your 
time. Cultivate agreeable manners. Never reveal se- 
crets. Love your enemies. We should never harm the 
feelings of others. We should sympathize with the suf- 
fering. 

Model. The tides rise because the moon attracts the 
water. 

Conditional Clauses. 

317. A conditional clause is an antecedent to 
some effect or event, but not necessarily its cause. 

318. Conditional clauses are used to limit the 
principal clause by means of some real or supposed 
condition ; as, u If it rains, I shall not go." 

319. When the conditional clause denotes some- 
thing actual, or assumed as actual, the tense form 
of the verb indicates its true time ; as, " If it rains, 
rained, or has rained, I shall not go." 

320. When the conditional clause denotes some- 
thing supposed or hypothetical, the tense form of the 
verb does not indicate its true time. 

(a.) The past tense represents present time ; the past perfect, 
past time ; and the past of the potential, future time ; as, " I am 
not going ; but if I were going (now), I should ride ; " "I was not 
going; but if I had been going (yesterday), 1 should have told 
you; " "I shall not go; but if I should go (hereafter), I should 
walk." 

(5.) Sometimes there is an ellipsis of the auxiliary ; as, " If he 
(should) come, we will ride into the country." 

321. The principal connective of conditional 
clauses is if. The following, which may be con- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 155 

sidered as nearly equivalent to if, are also used : — 
unless (if not), though, lest, except, provided that. 

322. The verb of the conditional clause is in 
the subjunctive mode, and may be either of the 
indicative or potential form, (86;) that of the prin- 
cipal clause is generally either in the indicative 
future, or in some tense of the potential. 

323. Conditional clauses may become principal 
clauses, by changing the subjunctive to the impera- 
tive mode, and using and instead of if; as, " If you 
will give me an axe, I will cut this tree " = " Give 
me an axe, and I will cut this tree." 

(a.) Sometimes the condition is expressed by a question; as, 
" Is any among you afflicted? let him pray " = " If any (one) 
among you is afflicted, let him pray." 

(b.) By placing the subject after the verb, or between the aux- 
iliary and the verb, " if" may be omitted ; as, " Were he a more 
careful man, he would meet with better success." 

Exercise 51. 

Analyze the following complex sentences, and parse 
the connectives : — 

If a tree loses its leaves before the fruit is ripe, the latter 
becomes withered. If the bark of a tree is injured, the tree 
becomes sick, and finally dies. Except ye repent, ye shall 
all likewise perish. If you will read my story, you can judge 
for yourself. If you would enjoy health, bathe often. I 
shall leave to-morrow, unless my friend arrives. You may 
xeturn, if you please. Should it rain to-morrow, (323, b.) 
the lecture will be postponed. Were the cause good, he 
would not fear the attack of its enemies. Were patrons 
more disinterested, ingratitude would be more rare If we 



156 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

wish to cut glass, we must have recourse to the diamond. 
Had I acted from personal enmity, I should justly be de- 
spised. If there be any thing improper in this address, 
the singularity of your present situation will excuse it. 

Write five of the preceding examples, and change 
the mode of the conditional clause to the imperative. 

Model. Remove the leaves from a tree before the fruit 
is ripe, and the latter becomes withered. 

Write conditional clauses to limit the following sen- 
tences used as principal clauses : — 

We shall go. You may attend school. The moon will 
be eclipsed. The patient will recover. George will im- 
prove. The ice will melt. The plants will not -thrive. 
The stream cannot be crossed. The labor must be per- 
formed. Remorse will ensue. He can perform the task. 
Water will become ice. Fruit will not ripen. 

Model. We shall go, if it is pleasant. 

Apply a consequence to the following conditions : — 

If you leave ; should he stay ; had I stopped ; we're the 
measure to be adopted ; could we ascend the ladder ; un- 
less relief come immediately ; if the day should be un- 
pleasant ; should the wind blow ; except he yield to the 
proposal ; provided that a sufficient number of men can 
be obtained ; if the term closes on Saturday. 

Model. If you leave, no one can supply your place. 

Final Clauses. 

324. Clauses which denote a purpose, or motive, 
are called final clauses. They are connected by 
that, that not, and lest. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 157 

(a.) Lest denotes a negative purpose, or the avoidance of an 
evil, and is nearly equivalent to that not ; as, " Take heed lest ye 
fall z= that ye do not fall." 

325. The potential mode, or subjunctive, poten- 
tial form, is always employed in final clauses, and 
the imperative or potential is commonly used in 
the principal clause. 

326. An adjective clause, introduced by a prepo- 
sition, and having its verb in the potential mode, 
generally denotes a purpose ; as, " We have no 
Jther means by which we may aid him" 

(a.) Final clauses are often equivalent to an infinitive; as, 
' Eat that you may live " ==" Eat to live." 

(b.) Final clauses generally relate to some correlative phrase 
n the principal clause, such as, " in order," " with the design." 



Exercise 52. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the con- 

^ectives : — 

I have brought a passage, that you may explain it. He 
fished the springs, that he might improve his health. I 
«iave been the more careful, that I might not be the instru- 
ment of his ruin. He sent me a history of Rome, that I 
night examine it. I opened the door, that I might see 
,vho was there. He went to the city, that he might consult 
in attorney. 

Write clauses denoting a purpose or motive to 
the following : — 

We should take exercise. Avoid trees in a thunder- 
storm, Study. Improve your time. Shun bad company. 
Take heed. Reprove not a scorner. Answer not a fool 
14 



158 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

according to his folly. Oblige your friends. He opened 
the window. He fled his country. 

Change the above clauses denoting purpose to 
infinitives. (326, a.) 

Write sentences in which the following infinitives 
shall denote purpose, and then change them to 
clauses : — 

To see his brother ; to hear the news ; to enjoy the sea- 
breeze ; to write a letter ; to educate his children ; to take 
lessons in music ; to catch a robber ; to sell his furniture ; 
to obtain a situation in the bank. 

Write five complex sentences, each containing an 
adjective clause denoting purpose. (326.) 

Adversative Clauses. 

327. Adversative clauses are used when we 
concede something which stands as a cause or rea- 
son opposed to the statement in the principal 
clause. They are introduced by though, although, 
notwithstanding, however; as, u Though he slay 
me, yet will I trust in him." 

(a.) The correlatives of adversative clauses are, yet, still, or 
nevertheless, placed in the principal clause. 

(5.) JVhatever, whoever, whichever, and while, often have an 
adversative signification ; as, " Whatever you may say, he per- 
sists in doing it." 

328. An adversative clause may be expressed 
by a comparison of equality ; as, " Poor as he was, 
he contributed more than any other man " = 
" Though he was poor, he contributed more than 
any other man/' 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 159 

/ 

(a.) Adversative clauses are often equivalent to phrases con- 
nected by with, without, notwithstanding, despite of; as, " With 
all his faults, he is a useful man " = " Though he has many faults, 
he is a useful man." 

Exercise 53. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 
Although the place was unfavorable, nevertheless Csesar 
determined to attack the enemy. However careless he 
might seem, his fortune depended upon the decision. Fee- 
ble as he was, he devoted the whole day to study. Vigilant 
as were the watchmen, the robbers made frequent depreda- 
tions. Whoever may oppose, we shall insist upon the 
adoption of the plan. He would pull a mote out of his 
neighbor's eye, while he has a beam in his own. 

Write sentences in which the following adjectives, 
with as, shall introduce an adversative clause. Intro- 
duce each by though. 

Bold, deficient, strong, poor, thoughtless, silent, bright, 
warm, faithful, honest, abrupt, wild, sad, joyous, contented. 
Model. Cold as it was, we were compelled to be out 
through the night z= Though it was cold, &c. 

Expand the following Italicized phrases into adver- 
sative clauses. (See 328, a.) 

With all his faults, I love him. He applied for a sit- 
uation, icithout a recommendation. Notwithstanding the 
storm, we commenced our journey. Despite of oppo- 
sition, he made his way to distinction. 

Model. Though he has many faults, I love him. 

Write a sentence having an adversative clause for 
each of the connectives, though, although, notwith- 
standing, however, while, whatever, whoever. 



160 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



IV. — ADVERBIAL CLAUSES DENOTING MANNER. 

329. By adverbial clauses denoting manner, the 
predicate of the principal clause may be compared 
with that of the subordinate, so as to show, 1st, a 
correspondence ; 2d, a consequence ; or, 3d, equality 
or inequality in magnitude. 

330. Correspondence is indicated by as, just as, 
so . . . as, when it relates to a verb or adjective, and 
by such ... as, and same . . . as, when it relates to 
a noun ; as, " Speak as you think ; " " These are 
such books as I have." 

(a.) By an ellipsis of an entire proposition, two subordinate 
connectives come together, the former of which denotes corre- 
spondence ; as, " Always act in private as if you were seen by 
others " =" Always act in private as you would do if you were 
seen by others." 

331. Clauses denoting consequence, or effect, are 
introduced by so . . . that, when the consequence 
relates to a verb or adjective, and by such . . . that, 
when it relates to a noun; as, " The traveller was 
so weary that he fell asleep." 

(a.) When the consequence relates to a verb, so that should 
follow it ; when it relates to an adjective, so precedes, and that 
follows it ; when it relates to a noun, such or such a precedes, and 
that follows it. 

332. Comparison of equality (232) is indicated 
by as ... as ; as, " George is as tall as his brother " 
(is tall) So is used instead of the first as after 
not, in clauses denying equality ; as, u George is 
not so tall as .his brother." 

(a.) Proportionate equality, or equality between two predicates 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 161 

which vary in intensity, is indicated by the . . . the, the . . . so much 
the, with comparatives; as, " Tlie colder it is, the better I feel." 

333. Comparison of inequality is denoted by 
than, more . . . than, less . . . than ; as, " George is 
taller than his brother " (is tall.) 

(a.) Clauses denoting comparison are generally elliptical. 

Exercise 54. 

Analyze the following sentences, and tell which de- 
note CORRESPONDENCE, which CONSEQUENCE, and 
which EQUALITY Or INEQUALITY. 

As a bird that wandereth from her nest, so is a man that 
wandereth from his place. As the door turneth upon its 
hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed. Will you 
read so that you can be heard ? The robber struck him 
such a blow that he fell. Happiness is much more equally 
distributed than some suppose. Is gravity always as wise 
as it appears ? The science of mathematics performs more 
than it promises. Experience is a surer guide than ima- 
gination. Is it not better to be laughed at than ruined ? 
Moses built the tabernacle, as he was commanded. Do as 
your parents bid you. Can you paint the picture as she 
does ? Our lesson is the same as that we had yesterday. 
The more eminent men are, (332, a.) so much the more 
condescending they should be to the humble. The more 
prudent one is, the more cautious he is. Many men live 
as though (330, a.) they were born to pleasures. 

Write clauses denoting correspondence, to complete 
the following : — 

As a man thinketh Will you be so good 

The pupil wrote the copy just as The boy sings as 

The task is the same as Speak as ..... . 

Make the mark just as 

' 14 * 



i62 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Write clauses denoting consequence or effect to 
complete the following : — 

The day was so stormy The sun is so bright 

The patient had gained so much strength 

The hours seemed so long They gave him so little 

money We should acquire knowledge, so that 

It is so cold We have had so much rain 

Write clauses denoting comparison of equality ap- 
plied to the following adjectives : — 

Wise, great, stupid, long, broad, fierce, cool, strong, 
weak, thin, bright, dark, faithful. 

Model. Was Lycurgus as wise as Solon ? 
Write clauses denoting comparison of inequality 
applied to the same. 

Model. Solon was wiser than Lycurgus = Lycurgus 
was not so wise as Solon. 

334. It has now been shown that either of the 
five elements of a sentence may be a single word, 
a phrase, or a clause. They may be thus repre- 
sented : — 

.fldj.-f-SuB. : : PRW.+ Obj. + Jldv. 

Class 1 1 1 1 1 \ a . , 

Class 2 2 2 2 . 2 } S ™P^ sentences. 

Class 3 3 3 3 3 Complex sentences, 



SECTION VI. 

COMPLEX ELEMENTS CONTAINING CLAUSES. 

335. With simple elements of the first class, the 
only complex element that can be formed consists 



Class I. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 163 

of two or more single words united, (14.J;) as, 
" very quickly." But with the addition of the 
phrase, three or four varieties can be formed. (240.) 
By uniting the three different classes of elements, 
(single words, phrases, clauses,) at least nine varieties 
may be formed, as will be seen by the following 

EXAMPLES. 

Complex elements may be formed, — 

By joining 1 & 1 3 as, very quickly. 
By joining 1 &2; " desirous of fame. 
By joining 1 & 3; u a pleasure which I cannot 
express. 

( By joining 2 & 1 ; " with great satisfaction. 
Class II. < By joining 2 & 2; " in fear of detection. 

\ By joining 2 & 3; u from him to whom it is due. 
r By joining 3 & 1; " if he comes quickly* 
Class III. / By joining 3 & 2 ; " when we west to Albany 
( By joining 3 & 3; u as I came where he sat. 
Note. For an explanation of the table, see t 240, Note. 

Exercise 55. 

Review the models for analysis of complex elements, 
in Chap. II, and analyze the following examples : — 

The light, the celestial vault, the verdure of the earth, 
the transparency of the waters, gave animation to my 

* It is generally most convenient, except when minute analysis 
is required, to consider the subordinate clause, even though limit- 
ed, as a simple element ; as, " Since you have, by your own choice, 
refused the proposal." The same may be said of the phrase,when 
only a limiting word comes between the preposition and its ob- 
ject; as, "in this place ; " "through three volumes." 



164 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

spirits, and conveyed pleasures which exceed the powers of 
expression. Totally occupied with this new species of ex- 
istence, I had already forgot the light, though the first part 
of my being which I had recognized. If the blessings of 
our political and social condition have not now been too 
highly estimated, we cannot well overrate the responsibilities 
which they impose upon us. We hold these institutions of 
government, religion, and learning, to be transmitted (210) 
as well as enjoyed. I deem it my duty, on this occasion, 
to suggest, that the land is not yet wholly free from the 
contamination of a traffic at which every feeling of hu- 
manity must revolt. 



SECTION VII. x 

COMPOUND ELEMENTS OF THE THIRD CLASS. 

336. Although the clauses we have been con- 
sidering are subordinate to some part of the princi- 
pal clause, yet two or more of them may become 
coordinate with each other, and thus form a com- 
pound element of the third class ; as, " I thought 
that the substance of the fruit had become part of my 
own, and that I was endowed with the power of trans- 
forming bodies." 

337. Either of the principal or of the subordi- 
nate elements, when of the third class, may, like 
the single word or phrase, become compound. 
(151.) 



analysis of sentences. 165 

Exercise 56. 

Review the model on page 15, and then analyze 
the following sentences : — 

I soon perceived that I had the power of iosing and of 
recovering them, and that I could, at pleasure, destroy and 
renew this beautiful part of my existence. That their 
poetry is almost uniformly mournful, and that their views 
of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who 
admit the authenticity of Ossian. 

When riseth Lacedemon's hardihood, 
When Thebes Epaminondas rears again, 
When Athens' children are with arts endued, 
When Grecian mothers shall give birth to men, — 
Then thou mayst.be restored. 

I neither knew what I was, where I was, nor from whence 
I came. Why we are thus detained, or why we receive 
no intelligence from home, is mysterious. 

Amongst that number was an old man, who had fallen 
an early victim to adversity, and whose days of imprison- 
ment, reckoned by the notches which he had cut on the 
door of his gloomy cell, expressed the annual circuit of 
more than fifty suns. Bruyere declares, that we are come 
into the world too late to produce any thing new ; that 
nature and life are preoccupied ; and that description and 
sentiment have been long since exhausted. We may 
rather suppose, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; 
that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowl- 
edge will always be progressive ; that there are innumer- 
able regions of imagination yet unexplored ; and that all 
future generations will continue to make discoveries, of 
which we have not the least idea. 

Write ten sentences, each containing a compound 
element of the third class. 



166 ANALYSIS O* SENTENCES. 

SECTION VIII. 

SEVERAL ELEMENTS OF THE SAME NAME. 

338. A complex sentence may be greatly ex- 
tended by introducing two or more modifying 
words, phrases, or clauses of the same name not 
connected with each other. (165.) 

(a.) Adverbial clauses, from their variety, afford the greatest 
opportunity for using different elements of the same name. We 
may limit the predicate with an adverbial element denoting place, 
with another denoting time, &c. And each of these may be 
complex or compound. 

Exercise 57. 

Analyze the following complex sentences, and point 
out the words, phrases, or clauses, of the same name 
ivhich are not connected with each other, yet belong to 
the subject or predicate : — 

As I darkened the light, he cast his eye toward the win- 
dow, that he might catch the feeble rays of the moon. 
When we passed the corners of the streets, we were al- 
ways saluted by some beggars who were congregated there, 
ff there be, within the extent of our knowledge or influ- 
ence, any participation in the traffic, let us pledge ourselves 
here, upon the Rock of Plymouth, to extirpate and de- 
stroy it. 

Take any twelve of the unlimited propositions in 
the first five exercises, Chap. L Sec. IL, and expand 
them as much as possible, by additions to the subject 
and- predicate. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. J 6^ 

339. The three classes of clauses, substantive, 
adjective, and adverbial, have now been explained. 
They may be thus represented, as they enter into 
the structure of a sentence : — 

Adj. Ele. 4- Sub. : : Pred. + Obj. Ele. -f Adv. Ele 

„ r* , > Subs, clause. Subs, clause. Subs, clause. Adv. clause 

bubs, clause. S 



SECTION IX. 



ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 



340. A complex sentence differs from a simple 
sentence only in the expanded state of some one 
or more of its elements. (270, 271, 272.) Hence, 

341. A complex sentence may be reduced to a 
simple one by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, 
" A man who is deceitful, can never be trusted" = 
" A deceitful man can never be trusted." 

{a.) The abridged form partakes of the nature of the clause 
from which it is derived, that is, it is either substantive, adjective, 
or adverbial. 

( b.) In abridging a proposition, the change is produced chiefly 
upon its essential parts, (264,) its subordinate elements being 
joined to the abridged form without alteration. 

342. The general rule for abridging a subordi- 
nate clause, is, to remove the connective, and change 
the predicate to a participle or an infinitive ; as, 
" When shame is lost, all virtue is lost " = " Shame 



108 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

being lost, all virtue is lost ; " " We told him thai 
he must leave" = u We told him to leave" 

( a.) The connective is retained in certain substantive clauses, 
when the predicate is in the potential mode, and the subject is 
the same as that of the principal verb. In such cases, the predi 
cate is changed to the infinitive and the subject, dropped by 
IF 343, (a.); as, "I knew not what I should do = what to do.' 1 
In like manner, we have, "whom to send;" " where to go; 7 
" when to stop ; " " how to do it" &c. 

(b.) A similar change may take place in such adjective clauses 
as are mentioned in U 32fr; as, " Give me a knife with which J 
may cut this string = with which to cut this string = to cut this 
string with." 

Note. By changing the predicate to a participle or an infin- 
itive, the assertion is destroyed ; the attribute, either with or 
without the participle of the copula, (185, Note,) becomes an 
assumed property (16, a.) or is used substantively. 

343. The following are the rules for the subject 
in an abridged proposition : — 

(a.)- When the subject of the subordinate clause 
is the same as the subject or object of the principal 
clause, it is omitted; as, "I wish that I might go 
= to go" 

(6.) When it is different from the subject or 
object of the principal clause, it must be retained^ 
and may appear either in the nominative, posses- 
sive, or objective case. 

(c.) When it is in the nominative case, it is put 
absolute with the participle. " When shame is lost 
= shame being lost, all virtue is lost." 

(d.) When it is in the possessive case, it be- 
comes wholly subordinate to the abridged predicate 
used as a noun ; as, "I was not aware that he was 
going = of his going." (185. c.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 169 

(e.) When it is in the objective case, it is fol- 
lowed by the infinitive of the abridged predicate ; 
as, " I told him that he must go = him to go" 
(See 194 and 210.) 

344. The following are the rules for the pred- 
icate : — 

(a.) The abridged predicate may have two con- 
structions, — that of an adjective, or that of a sub- 
stantive ; as, " The man who perseveres " zz: " The 
persevering man ; " " I am not sure that he will 
be present = of his being present." 

{b.) When the attribute of the predicate is an 
adjective or a noun, the participle or infinitive of 
the copula must be joined to it to give it a 
verbal form ; as, " to be industrious ; " " being 
merchants." 

(c.) When the attribute of the predicate is a 
noun, it must be in the objective case after the 
participle or infinitive of the copula, when the 
subject is changed to the objective (343, e.) ; as, " I 
believed that it was he = it to be him." 

(d.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, 
after the participle of the copula, when the subject 
is in the nominative, (343, c.) ; as, " As a youth was 
their leader, what could they do?" = "A youth 
being their leader" &c. 

(e.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, 

when, with the participle of the copula, it becomes 

a verbal noun, limited by the possessive case of the 

subject ; as, " That he was a foreigner prevented 

15 



170 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

his election " = "His being a foreigner* prevented 
his election." 

345. All abridged constructions may be reduced 
to four classes, — the participial construction, the nom- 
inative absolute, the infinitive, and the participial noun. 
In the first two, the attribute is used as an. adjec- 
tive ; in the last two, as a substantive. (344, a.) 

346. In the participial construction, the subject 
is omitted, (343, a.) and the attribute of the predi- 
cate is joined as an adjective to some noun or pro- 
noun in the principal clause. Hence, 

* That " foreigner," or any other word similarly used, is in the 
nominative case, will appear from the following considerations : —- 

(1.) It was in the nominative case before the clause was 
abridged. (60.) 

(2.) It cannot be in the possessive case, after the change, 
though it relates to the same person as " his y" for it neither has 
the sign of possession, nor does it denote possession. Besides, by 
a universal law of language, a dependent or limiting word, like 
" his," has no control over the construction of the words on which 
it depends. (185, c.) 

( 3.) It cannot be in the objective case ; for it does not depend 
upon any word (such as a preposition or verb) which requires it 
to be in that case ; nor has any thing taken place in the process of 
abridgment, as in IF 344, (c), to cause any change in its case. 
Hence, as it was in the nominative case before the change, it must 
still remain in that case, unless its position in the sentence should 
require a change. 

(4.) But no position which it may take in being incorporated 
as a part of the principal clause, can cause a change of case. A 
subordinate clause may take any position in the sentence, ( 268 ;) 
hence its abridged form may take the same, ( 341, a.) Subordinate 
clauses have a twofold construction ; one as a whole, and one as 
composed of parts ; (261, a.); so have their abridged forms. 
Thus, in the following examples, the abridged forms, as a whole. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 171 

347. The participial construction is most com- 
monly employed in reducing adjective clauses ; as, 
" The culprit who was convicted of stealings con- 
victed of stealing, was sent to the penitentiary." 

348. Adjective clauses are often reduced by 
changing the predicate into a noun joined to the 
limited noun by " of ; " as, " A man who is gener- 
ous will gain friends " = " A man of generosity will 
gain friends." 

349. The abridged predicate, whether in the 
form of the participle or infinitive, may receive the 
same additions as it would receive in the un- 

perform precisely the same offices as the complete forms. " That 
he was a foreigner, (281)= his being a foreigner, prevented his 
election." " I knew that he was a foreigner'" (295) ="I knew 
his being, or of his being a foreigner." " The fact that he was a 
foreigner, (294) —of his being a foreigner, was undeniable." 
" JVhen he teas first called a foreigner, (305) = on his being 
first called a foreigner, his anger was excited." In all these 
abridged forms, neither " foreigner " nor any other one word, but 
the whole combination, takes the place of its corresponding clause. 
In the first example, the combination, especially " being a for- 
eigner," is in the nominative case ; but that fact does not require 
the single word " foreigner " to be in that case. In the other ex- 
amples, the same form is in the objective case ; but the word " for- 
eigner " is not hence in the objective any more in the abridged 
than in the complete form. Therefore, though the whole combina- 
tion may be either in the nominative or objective case, each word, 
taken separately, may have its own construction, (see 187, a.) ; 
and since " foreigner " was in the nominative (pred. nom.) origin- 
ally, and nothing has taken place to change its case, it must still 
remain as the predicate-nominative of an abridged proposition. 
Hence, in abridging the following proposition, " I was not aware 
that it was he," we should say, " of its being he," not " his " nor 
u him" 



172 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

changed form ; as, " When he came into the city 
= coming into the city ; " to come into the city. 

(a.) The participle may be used wholly as an adjective, and 
be placed before the noun ) as, " The man who labors " = " The 
laboring man; " or it may retain some of the characteristics of the 
clause from which it is derived, and be placed after the noun ; as, 
" Those who live upon the sea-shore " ==" Those living upon the 
sea-shore.' 1 

350. The participial construction may be em- 
ployed to abridge adverbial clauses, when it can be 
used to limit a noun, and at the same time denote 
some circumstance of the principal verb; as, "Be- 
cause he was unable to persuade the multitude, he left 
in disgust w ~ " Being unable, or Unable to per- 
suade" &c ; u He fell, clinging to the branches." 

351. The nominative absolute is employed when 
the subject is not omitted, (344, b.) and the attri- 
bute is used as an adjective agreeing with it ; as, 
" Jesus conveyed himself away, a multitude being in 
that place ." 

352. This construction is employed chiefly in 
abridging adverbial clauses denoting time or cause. 

Exercise 58. 

Abridge the subordinate clauses in the following 
sentences, by employing the participial construction, or 
the nominative absolute, and explain the changes : — 

When Elizabeth was queen, Bacon was lord chancellor. 
A necessitous man, who gives cosily dinners, pays large 
sums to be laughed at. Dr. Franklin, who was the projec- 
tor of many useful institutions, was bred a printer. Honors 
which are bestowed upon the illustrious dead, have in them 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 173 

no admixture of envy. As we were passing through the 
straits, we were detained by a dense fog. Because some 
truths are difficult of comprehension, the weak reject them. 

Expand the following abridged forms into clauses, 
and explain the changes : — 

Privileged individuals, surrounded by parasites, syco- 
phants, and deceivers, too often become the willing victims 
of self-delusion. Undelighted amidst all delight, and joy- 
less amidst all enjoyment, they eventually receive the full 
measure of the punishment of their folly, their profligacy, 
or their vice. Analogy being a powerful taeapon, we 
should be extremely cautious in using it. 

353. The infinitive is employed chiefly to 
abridge substantive clauses introduced by "that;" 
as, " That one should steal, is base " = " For one to 
steal, (194.) is base." 

354. The infinitive is employed to abridge ad- 
verbial clauses denoting a purpose, (226,*) as, "He 
went that he might see = to see?'' 

(a.) When the subject of the final clause (324) is retained, 
(344, b.) it is put in the objective case after "for;" as, "I have 
brought a book for you to read." " For " governs not " you " 
alone, but "you to read," in the same manner as some transitive 
verbs govern a double object. (120, 210.) 

(b.) Formerly, " for " was employed to govern the infinitive of 
purpose, when used without its subject; as, " What went ye out 
for to see ? ' ' 

355. Substantive clauses of an interrogative na- 
ture, (274,) are generally abridged by employing 
some noun which shall express the general idea of 
the clause ; as, " I know not where he is concealed " 
— " I know not the place of his concealment." 

356. The participial noun is employed to 

15* 



i.74 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

abridge both substantive and adverbial clauses. Ii. 
the latter case, it generally follows a preposition ; 
as, " When we arrived at the pier 3 all was commo- 
tion v = a On our arriving at the pier 3 all was com- 
motion," 

Exercise 59. 

Analyze and explain the following sentences ac- 
cording to the previous principles : — 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall nei- 
ther attempt to palliate or deny. He had been there but a 
short time, before the old man alighted from his gig, with 
the apparent intention of becoming his guest. Such persons 
commence by being their own masters, and finish by being 
their own slaves. I have brought a book for you to read. 
Trusting in God, implies a belief in him. 

Expand the above abridged clauses to complete 
clauses. 

Reduce the following miscellaneous complex sen- 
tences by abridging the subordinate clauses : — 

The belief that there is a plurality of gods, is inconsistent 
with reason. Nothing more completely baffles one who is 
full of trick and duplicity himself, than straightforward, 
simple integrity in another. Johnson declared that wit 
consists in finding out resemblances. 

Combine the following si?nple sentences, so as to 
make one complex sentence out of the first and second, 
another out of the third and fourth, and so on; then 
abridge the subordinate clause : — 

We left. The sun set. A sudden noise alarmed us. 
We were sitting under a tree. He will retire from busi- 
ness. He has accumulated a fortune. He means well. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 175 

He makes many blunders. The peaches fall to the ground. 
Charles shakes the tree. He will spend four years in the 
country. He will attend to agricultural pursuits. 

Model. We left when the sun set = at sunset. 
Note. Before closing this section, a word or two is necessary 
respecting the influence of tense upon the abridged form. Tense, 
in subordinate clauses, is not reckoned from the time of the 
speaker, (as in principal clauses,) but from the time of the action 
or event mentioned in the principal clause. (78, b.) Hence, when 
the verb of the principal clause is in the past tense, that of the 
subordinate clause must also be in the past tense, if it denotes a 
time present with that of the event; but it must be in the past 
perfect tense, if it denotes a time past in reference to a past event. 
Thus, in the sentence a I believed that he was honest," " was," 
though in the past tense, denotes a time present with " be- 
lieved." Hence, in abridging this clause, the present of the infin- 
itive should be employed ; as, " I believed him to be honest." But 
in the sentence "I believed that he had been honest," "had 
been" denotes not only time past, but time completed, (81, b.) 
in reference to "believed." Hence, in abridging this clause, the 
past perfect of the infinitive should be used ; as, " I believed him 
to have been honest." The same principles apply to the partici- 
ples ; as, " When we saw the shower approaching, we sought the 
nearest shelter " = " Seeing the shower approaching, we sought,'" 
&c. " When the shower had passed, we resumed our journey " = 
" The shower having passed, we resumed our journey." In adver- 
bial clauses denoting time, the connective indicates the relative 
time of the subordinate clause, (312, 313 ;) the preposition performs 
a similar office in phrases denoting time. (224, c. and 79, c.) 

Note to Teachers. It will often be found convenient, in 
analyzing sentences, to vary the models. When it is desirable 
to impress upon the mind of the pupil the forms of the elements, 
he should follow the models strictly. At other times, it will be 
sufficient to say of an element, that it is the subject, predicate, or 
that it limits one of these, without giving its particular class. 
Sometimes it is well to parse a phrase or clause as if it was a 
single word. Thus, "when you call," in "I will go when you 
call," is an adverb, or is of the nature of an adverb, and limits 
"will go," by Rule IX. 



176 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

CHAPTER IV. 

(compound sentences.) 
COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

357. A compound sentence is formed by uniting 
two or more principal clauses, (see 263) ; as, " A 
wise son maketh a glad father ; but a foolish son is 
the heaviness of his mother.' 7 

358. The clauses which are thus united, are co- 
ordinate with each other. (149.) 

(«.) A compound sentence is formed by uniting two similar 
simple sentences, just as a compound element (149) is formed by 
uniting two similar simple elements. 

(6.) A compound sentence differs from a complex, precisely as 
a compound element differs from a complex. In a complex sen- 
tence, one clause enters in as a constituent element of the 
other, either as its subject, attribute, object, modifier, &c. ; but in 
a compound sentence, one clause is in no way a part of the other. 
It is composed of two distinct and independent parts. A com- 
pound sentence may be distinguished from a complex, by the 
connectives used. No connective can join coordinate clauses 
which may not also join coordinate parts of a clause. 

( c.) All coordinate conjunctions are used primarily to connect 
clauses ; but when the clauses have some part in common, that 
part is generally inserted but once, and the conjunction is used to 
connect only the other parts ; as, " Some men sin frequently, and 
some men sin presumptuously " = " Some men sin frequently and 
presumptuously." (Turn to Exercise 28, page 78, and extend 
each sentence by repeating the part in common.) 

359. Coordinate clauses may be divided into 
three classes, according to the connective used, 
(157,) copulative, adversative, and alternative. 

360. The coordinate parts of a compound sen- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 177 

tence may be either simple or complex sentences ; 
as j " Give me a book, and I will give you a slate. n 
*' The miser has lived poor, that he may die rich ; 
and if the prodiga. quits life in debt to others, the 
miser quits it still deeper in debt to himself." 



SECTION I. 

COPULATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

361. When one clause is so united to another as 
to express an additional thought, and thereby give 
a greater extent to its meaning, it is called copula- 
tive ; as, " Fingal bade his sails to rise, and the 
winds came rustling from their hills." 

362. When the copulative clause denotes addi- 
tion without emphasis or modification, the simple 
conjunction and is used. 

363. If we wish to awaken an expectation of 
some additional thought, and thereby introduce it 
with emphasis, the conjunction has a correlative 
placed in the first clause; as, "Not only did the 
wind blow most fiercely, but the rain fell in tor- 
rents. 7 ' 

(a.) The coordinate conjunctions, with, their correlatives, are ? 
both . . . and; as well . . .as ; not only . . . but, but also, but likewise. 
These correlatives are most commonly used to connect coordinate 
parts of the same clause ; as, u He was both virtuous and wise =* 
not only virtuous, but wise." 

364. It is often necessary to associate with 
"and" some other word, which shall give a shade 



178 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

of meaning to the added clause, not expressed by 
the principal conjunction ; as, " Susan is learning 
music, and, besides, she attends to drawing." 

(a.) These associate or auxiliary connectives are so, also, like- 
wise, too, which denote resemblance, and give additional force to 
the meaning of the second clause ; besides, moreover, and now, 
which are often used in argument, to enforce an additional objec- 
tion ; hence, therefore, consequently, wherefore, then, which repre- 
sent the coordinate clause as an inference from the preceding ; 
even, which gives peculiar force by expressing something unusual 
or beyond expectation. 

365. When the principal conjunction is under- 
stood, the auxiliary remains as the only connective, 
giving its peculiar force to the coordinate clause ; 
as, " The storm has abated ; therefore let us resume 
our journey; " " Demosthenes was a distinguished 
orator, [and] Cicero was also an eminent orator." 

( a.) These connectives partake of the nature of adverbs, and, 
unlike the principal conjunction, may be placed within the 
second clause. It is to this class of connectives that all deductive 
t particles are to be referred. (315, Note.) 

Model for analyzing Compound Sentences. 

CcBsar has refused his consent, and there remains no 
hope of my speedy restoration. 

It is a compound sentence, because it contains two 
similar clauses, (both principal.) 
Ccesar has refused Ms consent, is the first clause. 
There remains no hope, &c, is the second clause. 

It is a copulative clause, coordi- 
nate with the first, and is connected 
with it by " and," which joins the 
two clauses as elements of a com- 
pound sentence. 



- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 179 

Analyze each of the coordinate parts according to the previous 
models. 

Note. All compound sentences should be analyzed in a simi- 
lar manner These sentences are far less difficult than complex. 
The force of coordinate conjunctions is much sooner appreciated 
by children than that of subordinate. Hence children, and nations 
in the simplest states of society, employ these connectives first. 
The parts of a compound sentence often succeed each other 
without a connective, being separated by a colon or semicolon. 



Exercise 60. 

Analyze the following sentences, and tell whether 
the second clause expresses addition simply, addition 
with emphasis, (363,) or addition modified by some 
associated particle, (364. ) 

I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 
This part of knowledge has been growing, and it will con- 
tinue to grow till the subject be exhausted. I conceived a 
great regard for him, and I could not but mourn for the 
loss he had sustained. The more sleek the prey, the 
greater the temptation ; and no wolf will leave a sheep, to 
dine upon a porcupine. Not only am I instructed by this 
exercise, but I am also invigorated. Religion, as well as its 
votaries, must have a body as well as a soul. (363, a.) A 
hero on the day of battle has sacrificed a meal, and shall 
we therefore pity him ? (364.) Wisdom was their object, 
and they attained even more than that object. The poor 
lady is suffering from a fever ; her children are likewise 
ill. The situation is not suited to his tastes ; the compen- 
sation, moreover, is meagre. Green is the most refreshing 
color to the eye ; hence Providence has made it the com- 
mon dress of nature. 



180 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SECTION II. 

ADVERSATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

366. An adversative coordinate clause is one 
which stands opposed to, or contrasted with, the 
preceding clause ; yet both are so united as to forui 
one compound sentence. 

367. The simple adversative conjunction is but ; 
as, " We esteem most things according to their in- 
trinsic merit ; but it is strange that man should be 
an exception." 

368. When we wish to represent the first clause 
as a concession, we place near the beginning of it 
the correlative indeed, which points forward to hut 
as the connective of something opposed to the ad- 
mission ; as, U I did, indeed, grant his request ; but 
I took him to be a gentleman." 

(a.) The following correlatives are sometimes used to connect 
adversative clauses : — on the one hand . ... on the other ; at one 
time . ... at another ; now .... then. 

369. With but are often associated other words 
in the same clause, which become the sole connec- 
tive when the principal connective is understood. 

(a.) These are yet, still, however, nevertheless, now, and many 
of those mentioned in H 364, (a.) 

Exercise 61. 

Analyze the following sentences, pointing out the 
same distinctions as in the preceding exercise : — 
What he says is indeed true, but it is not applicable to the 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 181 

point. I strenuously opposed those measures, but it was 
not in my power to prevent them. We submit to the so- 
ciety of those that can inform us, but we seek the society 
of those whom we can inform. Vice stings us even in our 
pleasures, but virtue consoles us even in our pains. Tiger 
hunting is very fine amusement so long as we hunt the 
tiger ; but it is rather awkward, when the tiger takes it 
into his head to hunt us. They have, indeed, honored 
them with their praise, but they have disgraced them with 
their pity. Some men know but little of their profession, 
but yet they often succeed in life better than those whose 
attainments they can never reach. Straws swim upon the 
surface ; but pearls lie upon the bottom. A clownish air is 
but a small defect ; still (369) it is enough to make a man 
disagreeable. The locusts have no king, yet go they forth 
all of them by bands. 



SECTION III. 

ALTERNATIVE COORDINATE CLAUSES. 

370. Alternative clauses are such as offer or 
deny a choice between two propositions ; as, cc We 
must conquer, or our liberties are lost." 

371. The simple conjunctions used to connect 
such clauses, are, or, nor, (=not or,) neither, (=not 
either. ) 

372. The alternative is made emphatic by placing 
the correlatives either or neither in the first clause ; 
as, "I shall neither go myself nor shall I send any 



16 



182 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

(a.) Neither . . . nor, either ... or, more commonly show an 
alternative between two elements of the same clause ; as, " He 
was neither wise nor careful;" "Either George or his brother 
will come." 

373. The connectives otherwise and else are 
often associated with or, and may represent it 
when understood ; as, " Learn your lesson ; other- 
wise you must lose your rank." 

Exercise 62. 

Analyze the following sentences as in the two pre- 
ceding exercises : — 

A jest is not an argument ; nor is a loud laugh a dem- 
onstration. I neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowl- 
edge of the holy. He either left the key in the door 
[or] else the robber had a false key. Christianity must 
be the true religion, (373;) otherwise all the religions in 
the world are but fables. 

For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn, 
Or busy housewife ply her evening care ; 

No children run to lisp their sire's return, 
Or climb his knees the envied kiss to share. 

Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? 

I have none ; else would I give it. He is either sick or 
fatigued, (372, a.) I neither knew what I was, where I 
was, nor from whence I came. 

Add either copulative, adversative, or alternative 
clauses to each of the following simple sentences. 

We must conquer. The debt must be paid. The 
child will be relieved soon. He has returned. The lec- 
ture has either been very long. He has not the strength 
to accomplish the work. We must retreat. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 1 S3 

SECTION IV. 

RECAPITULATION. 

374. We have now exhibited all the forms of 
words, phrases, and chases, which enter into the 
structure of the English language. The following 
recapitulation will give a condensed view of their 
principal uses : — 

375. In reviewing the preceding chapters, the 
learner will observe that any sentence is composed 
of essential parts and connectives. 

376. The essential parts are of the nature of a 
substantive, adjective,* or adverb. (176, 189, 269.) 
These parts may enter into the structure of a sen- 
tence, either in the form of a single word, a phrase, 
or a clause. 

377. The substantive (word, phrase, or clause) 
may enter into the structure of a sentence in three 
relations, — as subject, as attribute, (either assumed 
ox predicated,) or as object. 

378. The adjective (word, phrase, or clause) may 
enter into the structure of a sentence, first, as a 
modifier, and, secondly, (with the exception of the 
clause,) as the attribute of a proposition. 

379. The adverb (word, phrase, or clause) is 
used as a modifier. 



* It should be borne in mind, that adjective, as here used, in- 
cludes the attributive part of the verb. (24, 35, a.) 



184 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

380. The adjective element, in either class, is used 
to limit merely ; — to limit by denoting quality, 
to limit by denoting identity, or to limit by de- 
noting possession. 

381. The objective element, in either class, is used 
to complete the meaning of a transitive verb. 

382. The adverbial element, in either class, de- 
notes the place, time, cause, or manner of an 
action. 

383. Each element is subject to three condi- 
tions ; it may be simple, complex, or compound. 

(&.) When the subordinate elements are simple, the adjective 
belongs to the subject, (except when the predicate-nominative is 
used ;) the objective belongs to the predicate, (used only with tran- 
sitive verbs ;) the adverbial belongs to the predicate. When any- 
one of these elements is complex, it may be formed by a union 
of either or all the others, so that an adverbial or objective ele- 
ment may be found in the subject, or an adjective in the predicate. 

384. The following table exhibits the different 
forms of the elements in the simple, the complex, or 
the compound sentence : — 

Adj. + Sub. : : Pred. + Obj. + Adv. 
Class 11 1 1 1 i G . _ 

Class 2 2 2 2 2 J Sim P le - 

Class 3 3 3 3 3 Complex. 

Adj. -f S. : P. + Obj. + Adv. Adj. + S. : P. + Obj. + Adv. 

1111 1^/1111 h 

2 22 2 2 +* 2 22 2 2 [ Comp. 

3 3 3 3 3) 13 3 3 3 3) 



* The different coordinate conjunctions bear some resemblance 
to the three algebraic signs, +, — , ^ ; the first representing the 
copulative ; the second, the adversative ; the third, the alternative 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 185 

385. These elements are united by connectives. 

386. The subject and predicate are united by 
the copula, either distinct or involved in the verb. 

387. The other elements are united either sub- 
ordinately or cobrdinately. 

388. Subordinate elements are united immedi- 
ately, if of the first class, — by means of preposi- 
tions, if of the second, — by means of relative pro- 
nouns, conjunctions, or conjunctive adverbs, if of the 
third. 

389. Coordinate elements of either class are 
connected by conjunctions. 

390. Conjunctions, or conjunctive words, are 
divided into two classes, — coordinate and subordin- 
ate. The former are used in compound or partial 
compound sentences, and the latter in complex. 

391. The coordinate conjunctions are often 
placed at the beginning of an entire sentence, or 
even a paragraph. They then connect the thought 
contained in the sentence or paragraph which fol- 
lows, to that which precedes. 

(a.) Sometimes subordinate connectives, especially for 
and because, are placed at the beginning of an entire sen- 
tence. In such cases, some principal clause is understood; as, 
[It is so,] u For I delight in the law of God after the inner 
man." 

(&.) It is worthy of notice, that coordinate conjunctions are 
employed to connect elements of the same class as well as the 
same rank ; whereas subordinate connectives join elements differ- 
ing both in rank and class ; as, u I know that the eye of the public 
is upon me, and that I shall be held responsible for every act;" 
u I will sustain the statement which I have made." 

16* 



18G ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

CHAPTER V. 

VARIOUS PROPERTIES OF SENTENCES, 



SECTION I. 
SENTENCES CONSIDERED AS A WHOLE. 

392. In the preceding chapters, we have ex- 
plained the different species of words, phrases, and 
clauses, which enter into the formation of a sen- 
tence. We are now to regard the sentence as a 
complete structure, entering in as a component 
part of a paragraph. 

393. Sentences thus considered are divided into 
four classes,- — declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
and exclamatory. 

394. A declarative sentence is a declaration or 
statement, either affirmative or negative, and is the 
appropriate form for narrative and didactic compo- 
sition. 

395. An interrogative sentence is a question, 
either direct or indirect, and is the appropriate form 
to be employed in seeking for information or gain- 
ing the assent of others. 

(a.) In questions for gaining assent, not should be inserted if 
we expect an affirmative answer, and omitted if we expect a neg- 
ative ; as, " Is there not an appointed time to man on the earth ? " 
[Yes.] " Doth God pervert judgment? " [No.] Hence, 

(ft.) If not is found in the question, it should be omitted 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 187 

m the answer, and should be inserted in the answer when it is 
not found in the question ; as, " There is an appointed time to 
man on the earth; " " God doth not pervert judgment." 

396. An imperative sentence is used to express 
a command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or a 
prayer j as, " Let us go ; " " May the truth prevail." 

(a.) Of this kind of sentence there are two forms, — one in 
which the verb is in the imperative mode, and one in which it is 
in the potential. (See the above examples.) 

(b.) An imperative sentence, when uttered by one who has 
authority, is a command ; when uttered by one without authority, 
is nothing more than an exhortation or entreaty ; when uttered 
by an inferior, is a prayer. 

397. An exclamatory sentence is either a declar- 
ative, interrogative, or imperative sentence, so ut- 
tered as to express passion or emotion ; as, " The foe 
is gone ! " " Was it not strange ! " " Make haste ! " 

(a.) Exclamatory sentences are often so elliptical as to be- 
come mere fragments of a sentence ', as, Strange ! Impossible ! 

(b.) Exclamatory expressions are often of the nature of the 
interjection; as, Mercy! Goodness! How strange! 

398. Each kind of sentence may be simple, com- 
plex, or compound. The compound may be either 
partial or complete. (See note at the bottom of 
page 75.) 

399. The parts of a compound sentence may be 
all of the same species, that is, all declarative, all 
interrogative, &c. ; or they may be of different spe- 
cies ; as, " Give me the means, and I will cause 
the work to be completed ; " " He came, but where 
is he now ? " 

(a.) Such sentences are called mixed; they may be formed by 
uniting any two of the four species of sentences. 



188 analysis of sentences. 

Models for analyzing a Paragraph. 

Note. After the general character of a sentence has been 
given, it may be analyzed according to the preceding models. 

But for what else can you find no leisure ? Do you find 
none for amusement ? Or is amusement itself your occu- 
pation 1 Perhaps pleasure is the pressing business of 
your life ; perhaps pleasure stands waiting to catch your 
precious moments as they pass. Bo you find none for the 
pursuit of secular knowledge ? Jf you find none, then, 
for religion, it is perhaps because you ivish to find none ; 
it would be, you think, a tasteless occupation, an insipid 
entertainment. 

The first sentence is a simple, indirect interrogative 
sentence. The second is a simple, direct interrogative 
sentence. The third the same. The fourth is a com- 
pound declarative sentence ; the first part is simple, the 
second complex, (360.) The fifth is a simple, direct inter- 
rogative sentence. The sixth is a compound declarative 
sentence, having two parts, both complex. 

Exercise 63. 

Analyze the following paragraphs : — 

Again, it is said, Am I not as good as others ? Why is 
an attention to religion, an unpopular piety, a rigid virtue, 
required of me, which cannot be found in the circle of my 
acquaintance, or in the world at large ? Why am I urged 
to set up as a reformer, or expose myself to the scorn of 
mankind ? But the majority of men are poor. Does this, 
however, check the ardor of your pursuit of wealth ? or do 
you avoid a new acquisition, because you fear it will ex- 
pose you to the envy of your inferiors ? The majority of 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 189 

mankind are ignorant. But is ignorance therefore honor- 
able, or is learning contemptible or invidious ? 

The first emotions which touched my breast were those 
of mingled pity and veneration. But how soon were all 
my feelings changed ! The lips of Plato were never more 
worthy of a prognpstic swarm of bees, than were the lips 
of this holy man. It was a day of the administration of 
the sacrament ; and his subject, of course, was the passion 
of our Savior. I had heard the subject handled a thousand 
times : I had thought it exhausted long ago. Little did I 
suppose, that, in the wild woods of America, I was to meet 
with a man whose eloquence would give to this topic a new 
and more sublime pathos than I had ever before witnessed. 



SECTION II. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE ELEMENTS. 

400. The arrangement of an element is the po 
sition which it takes in the sentence. 

401. There are two kinds of arrangement ; — 
that which is usual, called the natural or grammati 
cal order; and that in which the elements are 
transposed, called the inverted or rhetorical order. 



I. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL ELE- 
MENTS. 

402. In declarative sentences, the subject is 
placed before the predicate, the copula before the 



190 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES, 

attribute, and the auxiliary before the principal 
verb; as, " Caesar conquered;" "Life is short." 
"James will write." 

403. Inversion takes place when the predicate 
is made emphatic ; as, " Great is Diana of the 
Ephesians;" "Known unto God are all his 
works." 

(a.) In such cases, the subject is generally placed between the 
attribute and copula, or the auxiliary and principal verb. 

(b.) Inversion takes place in sentences introduced by there, 
(35, b. 196, a.) or in sentences following nor or neither. 

404. In direct interrogative sentences, the copula 
or auxiliary is placed first, the subject next, and the 
attribute or principal verb last; as, "Is he well?" 

" Can you go ? " 

(a.) When the predicate is a simple form of the verb, it is 
placed before the subject ; as, " Say you this without a blush ? " 

405. In indirect interrogative sentences, the in- 
terrogative is placed first, and the other parts are 
generally arranged as in direct interrogative sen- 
tences ; as, " When did he come ? " 

(&.) When the interrogative pronoun is in the nominative 
case, it stands before the predicate ) as, " Who comes there ? " 

(&.) When the attribute is the subject of inquiry, it should be 
placed before the copula, and the subject should be placed last ; 
as, " How high is the tree ? " " How old was the messenger ? " 

406. In imperative sentences, the subject fol- 
lows the predicate, or is placed between the copula 
and attribute ; as, "Go thou; " "'Be ye content." 

407. Exclamatory sentences follow the arrange- 
ment of the sentences from which they are de- 
rived. (397.) 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 191 

408. In subordinate clauses, the connective is 
placed first, and then the subject and predicate. 



II. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

409. The adjective element, if simple and of 
the first class, is placed before the noun ; if of the 
second or third class, it is placed after the noun : 
as, " Wise men = men of wisdom = men who were 
wise were chosen." 

(a.) The noun in apposition is placed after the noun which it 
limits; as, " George the king." 

(b.) A complex adjective element is placed after the noun 
when it contains an element of the second or third class ; as, 
M Men skilled in architecture." 

(c.) When an adjective element is of the first class, and com- 
pound, it may be placed before or after the noun ; as, u Pure and 
ardent devotion," or " Devotion pure and ardent." 

(d.) When an adjective limits the complex idea expressed by 
another adjective and noun, it must be placed before them both ; 
as, " Ml good men; " " That distinguished officer." 



III. — ARRANGEMENT OF THE OBJECTIVE AND 
ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 

410. The objective element of either class is 
placed after a transitive verb, and generally precedes 
the adverbial element ; as, " Susan painted the 
picture elegantly;" "I know that my Redeemer 
liveth." 

411. The indirect object precedes the direct, 
when the preposition is omitted ; otherwise it fol- 



192 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

lows it ; as j " We gave him money ]" u We gave 
money to him." 

412. Inversion of the objective element takes 
place frequently in poetry, but seldom in prose ; as, 
" Copernicus these wonders told. 7 ' 

(a.) As the relation of words in English is determined chiefly 
by their position, inversion of the object often renders the mean- 
ing of a sentence ambiguous ; as, " Caesar Brutus loved." Either 
"Caesar" or " Brutus " may be the object of "loved." When 
the pronoun is used, inversion may take place without obscur- 
ing the sense; as, "Him followed his next mate." 

413. The adverbial element of either class is 

placed after the word which it limits ; as, " The 

letter was written correctly;" "He remained in 

Philadelphia;" "We shall leave as soon as the 

storm abates." 

(a.) As a general rule, an adverbial element of the first class is 
placed before one of the second, and one of the second before one 
of the third; as, " He went early in the morning ; " " Some per- 
sons beg their daily happiness from door to door, as beggars 
do their daily bread." 

414. Inversions take place more frequently in 
the adverbial element than in any other. 

415. The simple adverb is often placed between 
the copula and attribute, or between the auxiliary 
and verb ; as, "I shall immediately send for him;" 
" He is now convalescent." 

(a.) Modal adverbs, and such as modify the whole sentence, 
are often placed at the beginning ; as, u Perhaps he will do it." 

416. Adverbial elements of either class may be 
placed in either of three positions, — 1st, in their 
natural position after the predicate ; 2d, betweeivthe 
subject and predicate ; or, 3d, at the head of the 

sentence. 



1 : 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 193 



EXAMPLES. 

He examined the document carefully. 
1st Class. <J He carefully examined the document. 

Carefully did he examine the document. 
- He invaded the country with a large army. 
2d Class. I He, with a large army, invaded the country. 
With a large army, he invaded the country. 
r Flowers will bloom, when spring comes. 
3d Class. < Flowers, when spring comes, will bloom. 
' When spring comes, flowers will bloom. 

417. In compound sentences, the clauses are suc- 
cessive. One can never be interposed between the 
parts of another. 

Note. The perspicuity, harmony, strength, and beauty of a 
sentence often depend upon a skilful arrangement of its elements. 
No definite rules for arrangement can be given to guide the 
learner in all cases; he must rely mainly upon his own judg- 
ment, aided by the suggestions of his teacher. He will find it an 
excellent exercise, to take some well- written paragraph, and re- 
arrange all its sentences, then compare the new arrangement with 
the old, and decide upon their merits. 

Exercise 64. 

Show which elements in the following sentences are 
arranged grammatically r , and which are inverted : — 

Powerful was the king of Alba ; numerous were his 
armies ; mighty his people. Two hemispheres acknowl- 
edged his sway. The sun rose in glory on his eastern 
cities, and set in splendor o'er his western people. As the 
trunk of a luxuriant tree borne down by its branches, so 
was the kingdom of Alba in the midst of its dependencies. 
The precursors of a storm were seen in the west ; a majes- 
17 



194 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

tic figure emerged from the gloom ; the wreath of freedom 
decorated her brow ; her breastplate was the shield of 
faith. Superstition trembled at her coming. Tyranny 
fled before her footsteps. At her voice the wilderness 
blossomed, and the desert became as the peopled city. 

Point out the inversions in the following sentenc.es, 
and show what element is transposed : — 

Great is the theme, though weak the lay. Because the 
night was dark, they did not proceed. With regard to mo- 
rality, I was not indifferent. On the following day, they 
walked together in the garden. 

Seven circling planets I behold, 
Their different orbits all describe. 

Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him declare I 
unto you. Anxiously did we watch every movement. 

Take some inverted passage of poetry and arrange 
it grammatically. 

Arrange the following displaced elements so thai 
they will make sense : — 

He himself as well as he could concealed, and hasten 
on Thomas bade. We our cause, by calling in that which 
is weak injure often, to support that is strong which. The 
world we in others approving follow, but in ourselves ap- 
proving before it go. Of our population, the march west- 
ward, with consequences, in some degree has been attended, 
novel, in the human mind history of. Greatness his un- 
searchable is, and past finding out ways his. Of the new 
year what the charm is ? 
Improve the arrangement of the following sentences : — 

Impart to them, in addition to their hereditary valor, that 
confidence of success which springs from thy presence. 
The long voyage he has to make, to an American visiting 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 195 

Europe, is an excellent preparative. He will make order, 
at last, to arise from the seeming confusion of the world, 
who made light to spring from primeval darkness. If he 
was not the greatest king, he was the greatest actor of 
majesty at least, that ever filled the throne. He has not 
only disturbed our domestic, but our social relations. 



SECTION III. 

PECULIARITIES OF STRUCTURE. 

418. Peculiarities of structure may refer to en- 
tire sentences or to their component parts. 

I. — PECULIARITIES IN THE STRUCTURE OF SEN- 
TENCES. 

419. A sentence may be either loose or compact. 

(a.) These are qualities belonging to complex or compound 
sentences. 

(b.) Compact structure is often called periodic, and a com- 
pact sentence, a period. 

420. A loose sentence is one in which the parts 
are related in thought, but are wholly independent 
of each other in construction ; as, " Three days 
they mourned over Carthon : on the fourth, his 
father died." 

(a.) The loose sentence is to be found chiefly among com- 
pound sentences. 

(6.) The parts of a loose sentence are called its members. They 
may be either simple, complex, or compound. 

(c.) Each member contains a distinct thought, and is uttered 



196 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

as if it were a complete sentence ; the voice falls at the end of 
each member. 

421. A compact sentence is one in which the 
parts are closely united both in thought and con- 
struction ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." 

(a.) This property belongs both to compound and complex 
sentences. The latter are seldom loose. 

( b.) In uttering compact sentences, the voice is kept up till the 
close. 

(c.) Compact sentences are most closely united by means of 
correlatives. 

Exercise 65. 

Tell which of the following sentences are compact* 
and which are loose. 

These minor comforts are all important in the estimation 
of narrow minds ; and they either do not perceive, or will 
not acknowledge, that they are more than counterbalanced 
among us by great and generally diffused blessings. Let 
those who would affect singularity with success, first deter- 
mine to be very virtuous, and they will be sure to be very 
singular. A revengeful knave will do more than he will 
say ; a grateful one, will say more than he will do. We 
are sure to be losers when we quarrel with ourselves ; it is 
a civil war, and in all such contentions, triumphs are de- 
feats. When a man has displayed talent in some particu- 
lar path, and left all competitors behind him in it, the 
world are too apt to give him credit for a universality of 
genius, and to anticipate for him success in all that he un- 
dertakes. 

Write ten sentences, — five compact and five loose. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 197 



II. — PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE PARTS 
OF A SENTENCE. 

422. Any departure from the ordinary rules of 
construction is called & figure. The following are 
the principal figures which affect the construction 
of words. 

423. Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, 
or clause, which is necessary to complete the con- 
struction. 

(a.) Ellipsis should be distinguished from abridgment. (341.) 
In ellipsis some word is left out, but in abridgment an expression 
is shortened by a change of construction. 

(b.) Ellipsis differs from contraction. By contraction a com- 
pound sentence, having some one element or more in common, is 
reduced to a partial compound by using the common part but 
once ; as, " Cicero was a distinguished orator^ and Demosthenes 
was a distinguished orator " = " Cicero and Demosthenes were 
distinguished orators.'" Although this last sentence is sometimes 
said to be elliptical, nothing is necessary to complete the con- 
struction. 

( c.) Ellipsis should be distinguished from a careless omission 
of words necessary alike to the construction and meaning. 

424. Ellipsis generally takes place in exclama- 
tory sentences, (397,) in responsives, in clauses de- 
noting comparison, (333, a.) in inscriptions and 
titles, and after connectives ; as, " Strange ! " = " It 
is strange." "Whom did you see? George = I 
saw George." " The New Testament " = " This is 
the New Testament." "He is older than I = than 
I am old." 

425. Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis. It is 

17 # 



198 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

the use of superfluous words; as, "I know thee, 
who thou art ; " " Verily, verily, I say unto you." 

(a,) Pleonasm should be distinguished from expansion. The 
former consists in adding an element to express what has been 
already expressed, whereas the latter consists in changing the form 
of an expression for a more extended form, as an adverb, an adjec- 
tive, or a noun, for an equivalent phrase or clause. 

(b.) Pleonasm is allowable only in animated discourse, when 
an idea is to be rendered emphatic. 

426. Enallage, which means exchange, is the use 
of one word or form for another. 

427. Enallage may refer either to the form or 
meaning of words. 

428. By enallage, as it respects the form of 
words, — 

(a.) One part of speech may be used for an 
other ; as, " They fall successively] and successively] 
rise." 

( b. ) One number may be used for another ; as, 
we for I, you for thou. 

(c.) One tense may be used for another; as, 
"He riseth from supper, and laid aside his gar- 
ments," &c. 

Note. When a past or future tense is exchanged for the pres- 
ent, the figure is called vision, that is, seeing past or future events 
as if present. 

429. Enallage, as it respects the meaning of 
words, gives rise to several figures, called tropes. 

430. The principal tropes are, metaphor, personi 
jication, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony. 

431. Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate 
name of another object, on account of some resem- 
blance between them; as, "Man! thou pendulum 
betwixt a smile and tear," 



ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 199 

(a.) When the resemblance is stated formally, the figure is 
called a simile; as, " They rushed through like a hurricane." 
(b.) A continued metaphor is called an allegory. 

432. Personification attributes to inanimate ob- 
jects some of the qualities of living beings ; as, 
11 The sky saddens with the gathered storm." 

( a.) These two figures generally produce some change in the 
use of pronouns ; as when we apply the feminine pronoun shk 
(not it) to the moon ; or when we say of a statesman, " He is the 
pillar which (not who) supports the state." 

433. Metonymy is a change of name. It gives 
to one object the name of another which is related 
to it ; aSj crown for Icing, chair for president. 

434. Synecdoche is the use of a part for the 
whole, or the whole for a part ; as, roof for house. 

435. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite. 

436. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words. 

(a.) This figure has already been explained in Sec. II. of this 
chapter 

Exercise 66. 

Tell what figures are used in the following sen- 
tences : — 

A Greek Dictionary. Impossible ! Go. He speaks as 
if he had been sick. I saw it with my eyes. He walked 
on foot. Bark burned the candle. For Eenard close 
attended at his heels. And he taketh with him Peter, and 
James, and John, and began to be sore amazed. Devotion 
is a delicate and tender plant. The cherished fields put 
on their winter robe of purest white. The boy has read 
Virgil. They have Moses and the prophets. His arm is 
conquest, and his frown is fate. This roof protects you. 
He was as virtuous as Nero, and as patriotic as Arnold. 



200 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SECTION IV. 

EQUIVALENTS. 

437. Two different expressions, meaning the 
same thing, or nearly the same, are called equiva- 
lents ; as, " Xerxes ordered that Mardonius should 
remain in Greece =2 Mardonius to remain in 
Greece. 77 

( a.) Equivalent expressions often have shades of difference in 
meaning. In the above example, the first Italicized form implies 
that the command was given in a general way ; the second, that 
it was given personally to Mardonius. 

(b.) Equivalents in signification are by no means equivalents 
in grammatical construction ; nor is the grammatical construction 
of one form accounted for by explaining that of its equivalent. 

438. Two different words, meaning the same 

thing, or nearly the same, are called synonymes ; as, 

relinquish = abandon. 

( a.) There are, in most cases, shades of difference between 
words considered as synonymous. 

439. By means of equivalents, synonymes, or 
both, any sentence may be materially changed in 
form, with little or no change in meaning. 

440. In simple sentences we may obtain equiv- 
alent forms, — - 

(a.) By denying the opposite of that which is 
affirmed ; as, " He was not unskilful " == " He was 
skilful ; "- — 

(b.) By using the passive for the active voice, or 
the active for the passive ; as, " Columbus dis- 
covered America" = " America was discovered by 
Columbus ; ,? — 



ANALYSES OF SENTENCES. 201 

(c.) By expanding or abridging an element, 
(178, b.) ; as, " A morning ride is refreshing " = " A 
ride in the morning is refreshing ; n — 

(d.) By using the expletive it (196, a.); as, 
" To see the sun is pleasant " = " It is pleasant to 
see the sun." 

Note. Synonymes may be employed with any of these 
changes. 

441. A simple sentence may be changed to a 
complex by expanding any one of its elements into 
a proposition ; as, " Having completed his discov- 
ery, Hudson descended the river " = u After he had 
completed his discovery " &c. 

442. A complex sentence may be changed to an 
equivalent simple sentence by abridging its sub- 
ordinate clause. (342.) 

443. A complex sentence may be changed to an 
equivalent complex sentence, — 

(a.) By making any of the changes mentioned 
in 11 440, a, b, c, d, in either of its clauses ; — 

(b.) By using various equivalent connectives, 
as, when for as or as soon as. 

(c.) By using the expletive it. (See 282.) 

444. A complex sentence may be changed to a 
compound, by raising its subordinate clause to an 
equal rank with the principal ; as, " When spring 
comes, the flowers will bloom " = " Spring comes, 
and the flowers bloom." 

445. A compound sentence may be changed to 
a complex, by making one of its clauses subordi- 
nate ; as, " Man has a moral sense, and, therefore^ 



202 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

he is an accountable being " = " Since man has a 
moral sense, he is an accountable being." 

446. A compound sentence may be changed to 
an equivalent compound, by altering either of its 
clauses. (440, a, b, c, d.) 

447. A question for gaining assent may be 
changed into a declarative sentence, or a declara- 
tive sentence into a question for gaining assent. 
(See 395.) 

Note. After the learner has acquired a correct knowledge of 
the various forms and conditions of the elements of a sentence, 
perhaps no exercise, in connection with composition, will prove 
more beneficial than that of re-writing sentences, for the purpose 
of altering and improving, if possible, their form or arrangement. 
It is the only substitute which the mere English scholar can have 
for translation, an exercise which consists in obtaining equivalent 
forms in one language for given forms in another. It is to exer- 
cises of this kind that Dr. Franklin attributes his skill in writing. 
It is a sure way to give the pupil variety of expression, copious- 
ness of diction, and a knowledge of the flexibility and power of 
the language. As it respects a choice of words and expressions, 
no rules of grammar can materially aid the learner. He should 
study standard authors, such as Addison, Middleton, and Irving. 
A perusal of these will assist him in obtaining correct forms of 
expression, and enable him to avoid all low and unauthorized 
words. 

Exercise 67. 

Alter the folloxoing sentences by using synonymes : — 

Thankfulness is an agreeable feeling. They are sowing 
the seeds of strife. The hypocrite writhes in agony. The 
maid-servant is lighting the fire. They shrink from the 
contest. He is slaying his enemies. 

Model. Gratitude is a delightful emotion. 

Take a page from your reading lesson, and make 
any of the changes mentioned in this section. 



APPENDIX. 



English Grammar teaches the principles of the Eng- 
lish language. 

These principles refer to the formation of words or the 
formation of sentences. 

The first department embraces orthography and etymol- 
ogy, — the second, syntax and prosody. 

Note. Prosody relates to the formation of sentences into 
verse. 

Orthography treats of letters and their various combina- 
tions. 

Etymology treats of the different classes of words and 
their various modifications. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON I. 

Orthography treats of letters and their various com- 
binations. 

A letter is a character used to represent an elementary 
sound of the language. 



204 APPENDIX. 

The elementary sounds of the language are, — - 

(1.) Vocals,* or pure voice only ; as, a, e, i, o, u ; 

(2.) Subvocals, or voice and breath united ; as, b, d, m, 
ra, Z, r ; 

(3.) Aspirates, or pure breath only ; as, ^?, t, k,f. 

Those letters which represent the first class, are called 
vowels; those which represent the second and third, are 
called consonants. 

There are only twenty-six letters of the alphabet to represent 
about forty elementary sounds; hence several letters are used 
to represent each more than one sound. 

Of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, five (a, e, i, o, and u) 
are vowels ; two (w and y) are either vowels or consonants ; the 
remaining nineteen are consonants. W and y are consonants 
when they precede a vowel in the same syllable ; as in wine, 
twine, yes, yet. In any other situation they are vowels. 

Ten of the consonants (b, d, g, j, I, m, n, r, v, z) are subvocals ; 
eight (/, h, k, c, q, p, t, s) are aspirates ) x is a subvocal when it 
is equivalent to gs, an aspirate when it is equivalent to ks. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable ; 
as ou in sound. 

A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are 
sounded ; as oi in noise. 

An improper diphthong is one in which only one of the 
vowels is sounded ; as ea in heat. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sylla- 
ble ; as eau in beauty. 

A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels are 
sounded ; as uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong is one in which only one or two 
of the vowels are sounded ; as iew in view. 

* It is impossible to represent these distinctions in any way 
except by the living voice. The pupil should, therefore, be 
taught to give the elementary sounds (not the name sounds) of 
the letters till the distinction becomes familiar. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 205 

LESSON II. 

SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A syllable is a letter, or combination of letters, uttered 
by one impulse of the voice ; as, ab, id. A word is either 
a syllable or a union of syllables ; as, mat, mat-ter, ma- 
te-ri-al. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
trisyllable ; a word of four or more syllables, a poly- 
syllable. 

Words are either underived, derived, or compounded. 

The first are called radical or primitive words ; the 
second, derivative; the third, compound. 

Derivative words are formed from primitives by means 
of some additional syllable ; as, good, goodness ; real, 
realize ; grateful, ungrateful. 

When the added syllable is placed before the radical 
word, it is called a prefix ; as, reprove, improve, disprove, 
approve. 

When the added syllable is placed after the radical 
word, it is called a suffix; as, fearful, fearless, fearing, 
feared. 

Compound words are formed by uniting two primitive or 
derivative words ; as, book-case, book-binder. 

A radical word represents a single idea, — a derivative, some 
modification of an idea, — a compound, two distinct ideas united. 
It is worthy of notice, that these three classes of words bear a 
striking resemblance to the three classes of sentences. The sim- 
ple sentence represents a single thought; in the complex sen- 
tence, that thought is modified by the subordinate clause ; in the 
compound sentence, two distinct thoughts are united. 

18 



206 APPENDIX. 

Derivative words may be formed either by inflection or 
by derivation. 

By inflection the application of a word is changed, but 
not its classification. 

It is the same part of speech after the change as before. 

By derivation both the application and classification are 
changed, and the meaning is modified. 

Thus, from the noun fear r we have, by inflection, the noun 
fears, which denotes more than one : from the same word, we 
have, by derivation, the adjectives fearful, fearless, or the adverbs 
fearfully, fearlessly. 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different classes of words and 
their various modifications. 



LESSON I. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

There are in English eight classes of words, called parts 
of speech, namely, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the 
verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the 
interjection. 

Of these parts of speech, five (the noun, pronoun, adjective, 
verb, and adverb) are used as the constituent parts (176) of a 
sentence ; two (the preposition and conjunction) are used as con- 
nectives of those parts; one (the interjection) has no grammatical 
construction. 

Conjunctive adverbs, relative pronouns, and all attributive 
verbs (35, a.) are both constituent, elements and connectives. 



CLASSES OF THE NOUN AND PRONOUN. 207 

A noun is the name of an object ; as, fruit, Henry, 
Boston. 

A 'pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; 
as, he, she, it. 

An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the mean- 
ing of a noun ; as, good, faithful, this, some. 

A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; 
as, be, read, sleep, is loved. 

An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a verb, ad- 
jective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, first, far. 

A preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
tween a noun or pronoun and some preceding word ; as, 
upon, on, with. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect either words, 
phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or. 

An interjection is a word used to express some emotion 
of the mind ; as, oh ! alas ! 



LESSON II. 

CLASSES OF THE NOUN AND PRONOUN. 

Note. This lesson is referred to on page 19. It should be 
studied in connection with the subject of a sentence. 



Nouns. 

A noun is the name of an 
object. 

The word object, as here used, 
embraces every species of ex- 
istence, whether material or 
immaterial. 



Pronouns. 

A pronoun is a word 
which takes the place of a 
noun. 

The pronoun is used to repre- 
sent an object as having been 
previously mentioned, or as 



208 



APPENDIX. 



Nouns. 

Nouns are divided into 
two classes, — proper and 
common. 

A proper noun is the 
name of an individual ob- 
ject ; as, James, Erie. 

A common noun is a 
name which applies to each 
individual of a class of ob- 
jects ; as, man, boy, house. 

Under the head of com- 
mon nouns are commonly 
reckoned collective, abstract, 
and verbal nouns. 

A collective noun is one 
which, in the singular, de- 
notes more than one object ; 
as, army, family, flock. 

An abstract noun is the 
name of a property con- 
sidered apart from the ob- 
ject to which it belongs ; as, 
goodness, virtue, wisdom. 

A verbal noun is a parti- 
ciple used as a noun ; as, 
"He was convicted of 
stealing." 

The infinitive is a kind of 
verbal noun ; as, " To see the 
sun is pleasant." 

A phrase or entire prop- 
osition may be used as a 
noun 2 as, " From Boston to 



Pronouns. 

having some relation to the 
speaker. 

Pronouns are divided in- 
to three classes, — personal, 
relative, and interrogative. 

A personal pronoun is 
used both to represent a 
noun, and to show whether 
it is of the first, second, or 
third person. 

Note. Relative and inter- 
rogative pronouns will be treat- 
ed of hereafter. 

I (plural, we) is of the 
first person ; thou (plural, ye 
or you) is of the second per- 
son ; he, she, and it, (plural, 
they,) are of the third per- 
son, masculine, feminine, 
and neuter, respectively. 

When self (plural, selves) 
is added to the personal 
pronouns, they are called 
compound personal pro- 
nouns ; as, myself, thyself, 
himself. 

These seldom, if ever, are 
used as the subject ; they may 
be in apposition with the 
subject. 

It is often used in a 
vague sense, as the subject 
of verbs descriptive of the 



NUMBER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 



209 



Nouns. 

Providence is a pleasant 
route ; " " That you have 
wronged me, doth appear in 
this." 

Note. The noun is often 
called a substantive. All phra- 
ses or clauses used as nouns are 
called substantive phrases or 
clauses. 



Pronouns. 

weather ; as, "It rains ; ,: 
"It thunders." It is used 
as an expletive, (196, a.) or 
when we wish to identify a 
person, (60, b.) or when we 
wish to introduce a noun 
with emphasis. (196, a.) 



LESSON III. 



NUMBER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 



Note. This lesson is referred to on page 22, and should be 
studied in connection with the u Number of the Subject" 

Number is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
distinguishes one object from more than one. 

The noun or pronoun has two numbers, — the singular 
and plural. 

The singular number denotes but one object ; as, horse, 
river, nation. 

The plural denotes more than one object ; as, horses, 
rivers, nations. 

The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — 

(1.) By adding s when the singular ends with a sound 
that can unite with s ; as, book, books ; tree, trees ; — 

(2.) By adding es when the singular ends with a sound 
that cannot unite with s ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches. 

Many nouns form their plurals more or less irregularly. 

Many nouns ending with y preceded by a consonant, or with 
/ or fe^ follow the general rule for the addition, but undergo a 

18* 



210 APPENDIX. 

change in their termination; as, duty, duties ; fly, flies ; knife, 
knives. 

When y is preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly ; 
as, day, days ; play, plays. 

The following nouns form the plural irregularly : — child, chil- 
dren; man, men; woman, women; brother, brothers or brethren; 
louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; die, dice, (dies, when it means a stamp ;) 
tooth, teeth ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; penny, pence or pennies. 

Proper nouns, most abstract nouns, and nouns denoting sub- 
stance, have no plural ; as, Boston, Philadelphia, iron, gold, ice, 
patience, idleness. 

Proper nouns, however, may take the plural form when two 
or more persons are classed together; as, "the Csesars," " the 
Scipios." 

When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form one 
complex noun, the name is generally varied to form the plural ; 
as, "the Miss Browns." 

Some nouns are used only in the plural ; as, riches, scissors, 
shears, lungs. 

Some are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine. 

Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu- 
rals; as, datum, data; stratum, strata; axis, axes; seraph, sera- 
phim; beau, beaux. 

The plural of the pronouns is formed irregularly ; as, J, we ; 
thou, ye. 



LESSON IV. 

GENDER OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

Note. This lesson is referred to on page 23. 

Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns in regard 
to sex. 

There are three genders — the masculine, feminine, and 
neuter. 



PERSON OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 211 

Nouns or pronouns which denote males are of the mas- 
culine gender ; as, man, heroes, they. 

Nouns or pronouns which denote females are of the 
feminine gender ; as, girl, she ; women, they. 

Nouns or pronouns which denote objects without life, 
are of the neuter gender ; as, tree, it ; flowers, they. 

Nouns which are equally applicable to a male or female, are 
sometimes said to be of the common gender ; as, parent, teacher. 
But such nouns must be either masculine or feminine, and the 
true gender may generally be determined by the connection. 

By a figure of speech, (personification,) inanimate objects 
are spoken of as male or female. Thus, in speaking of a 
ship, we say, " She sails." 

There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes ; — 

(1.) By using different words; as, man, woman ; rain, 
ewe ; king, queen ; — 

(2.) By a difference of termination ; as, abbot, abbess ; 
actor, actress ; poet, poetess ; — 

(3.) By prefixes and suffixes; as, ma/i-servant, maid- 
servant ; Ae-goat, sAe-goat ; land-lord, land-lady. 

Personal pronouns of the first and second person have 
no form to indicate gender. 

Those of the third person have a distinct form for 
each gender ; as, he, masculine ; she, feminine ; it, neuter. 



LESSON V. 

PERSON OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

Note. This lesson is to be studied in connection with the 
person of the subject. 

Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which 
shows its relation to the speaker. 



212 APPENDIX. 

A noun or pronoun must represent either the speaker , the per- 
son spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

There are three persons, — the first, second, and third. 

The first person denotes the speaker ; as, " I, John, 
saw." 

The second person denotes the person spoken to ; as, 
" Children, obey your parents." 

The third person denotes the person or thing spoken 
of; as, " Thomas did not come;" " The harvest is abun- 
dant." 

Nouns in the first and second persons are never used as the 
subject or object of a verb, but may be in apposition with either. 

It is the appropriate office of the personal pronouns to denote 
person. 



LESSON VI. 

THE CASE OF THE NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

Note. This lesson should be studied in connection with the 
case of the subject. See " Case of the Subject,' 1 page 25. 

Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other 
words. 

There are three cases, — the nominative, possessive, said 
objective. 

The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun or 
pronoun, and is commonly used as the subject of a propo- 
sition ; as, iC George speaks ; " " The door was shut." 

Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case 
may be used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition, (60 ;) 2d, it 
may be used to identify the subject, (104;) 3d, it may be inde- 
pendent of any other word, (139;) 4th, it may be used with 
a participle in an abridged proposition, (351.) 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 213 

The possessive case denotes the relation of property or 
possession ; as, " David? s harp." 

The possessive case of nouns is formed by adding an 
apostrophe (') and the letter 5 to the nominative ; as, 
man's, men's. 

When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; 
as, hoys\ 

The possessive case of the personal pronouns is formed 
irregularly ; as, I, my or mine ; thou, thy or thine ; he, his ; 
she, her or hers. 

The possessives mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are 
used when the object possessed is understood. Hence they have 
the construction of the noun; as, "Mine is a pleasant task" = 
u My task is pleasant; " "I gave him yours." 

When a noun or pronoun follows a transitive verb or a 
preposition, it is in the objective case ; as, " Thomas 
opened his knife ; " " The bird sat on the tree" 

The objective case of the noun is the same in form as the nom- 
inative ; but the objective case of a personal pronoun, except it, 
is unlike the nominative ; as, /, me; thou, thee; he, him; she, her. 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

The declension of a noun or pronoun is its variation to 
denote number and case. 



EXAMPLES. 



Declension of Nouns. 

1. Boy. 

Sing. Plur. 

JYora. Boy, Boys, 

Poss. Boy's, Boys', 

Obj. Boys. Boys. 



Declension of Pronouns. 
First Person. 
Sing. Plur. 

Mm. I, We, 

Poss. My, mine, Our, ours, 
Obj. Me. Us. 



214 



APPENDIX 



2. Fly. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Fly, Flies, 

Poss. Fly's, Flies', 

Obj. Fly. Flies. 

3. Fox. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Fox, Foxes, 

Poss. Fox's, Foxes', 

Obj. Fox. Foxes. 

4. John. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. John, Wanting. 

Poss. John's, 

Obj. John. 

5. Goodness. 

Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Goodness, Wanting. 

Poss. Goodness', 

Obj. Goodness. 



Second Person. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. Thou, Ye, you, 

Poss. Thy, thine, Your, yours, 
Obj. Thee. You. 



Third Person. 
Sing. 
Nom. He, 
Poss. His, 
Obj. Him. 



Masculine. 

Plur. 
They, 

Their, theirs, 
Them. 



Third Person. Feminine. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. She, They, 

Poss. Her, hers, Their, theirs, 
Obj. Her. Them. 

Third Person. Neuter. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. It, They, 

Poss. Its, Their, theirs, 

Obj. It. Them. 



LESSON VII. 



ADJECTIVE WORDS. 



Note. This lesson is referred to on pages 31 and 50. 

That part which relates to page 31 will be found under the 
head of " Qualifying Adjectives." All words which have the 
construction of the adjective, are here considered under the head 
of " Adjective Words," whatever may be their particular classifi- 
cation. 

An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the 
meaning of a noun. 



ADJECTIVE WORDS. 215 

All adjective words are divided into two classes — limit- 
ing and qualifying. 

I. — LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict the 
meaning of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities ; 
as, " the house ; " "five books ; " " Arabian horses." 

Articles. 

The particular limiting adjectives the, and a or an, are 
called articles. 

The is called the definite article, because it points out 
some particular thing ; as, " the desk," " the sun." 

A or an is called an indefinite article, because it does not 
point out any particular thing; as, "a pen;" "an or- 
chard." 

An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a consonant 
sound ; as, M an apple ; " "a pin." 

Pronominal Adjectives, 

Those limiting adjectives which may, without the use of 
the article, represent a noun when understood, are called 
pronominal adjectives ; as, " That [book] is his ; this is 
yours." 

Qualifying adjectives may represent a noun when understood, 
but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy." 

The principal pronominal adjectives are, — this, that, these, 
those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, 
some, one, none, any, all, such, many, much. 

When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are 
generally called pronouns. They may more properly be called 
pronominal adjectives used as nouns; as, "This is my book.' 
The articles never represent a noun understood- 



216 



APPENDIX* 



Numeral Adjectives. 

Numeral adjectives are used to express number; a^, 
one, two, three, &c. 

Numerals are divided into two classes, — 
Cardinal ; as, one, two, three, four, &c.; — 
Ordinal; as, first, second, third, fourth, &c. 

Circumstantial Adjectives. 

Circumstantial adjectives are such as denote some cir- 
cumstance, generally of time or place ; as, " a morning 
walk ; " u an eastern custom ; " " a Turkish vessel." 

II.— QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meaning 
of a noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, " a 
virtuous man ; " " a running horse." 

To this class of adjectives belong the participles, which 
have the signification of the verb and the construction of 
the adjective. (77, a.) 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

When different objects are compared with each other, 
the adjective expressing the property by means of which 
they are compared, undergoes a change called comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison, — the positive, 
comparative, and superlative. 

The positive simply denotes a quality; as, righteous, 
pleasant. 

The comparative shows that one of two objects pos- 



CLASSES OF VERBS. 217 

scsses a quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, " This 
tree is taller than that." 

The superlative, shows that one of several objects pos- 
sesses a quality in the highest degree, when compared with 
all the rest ; as, " That pine is the tallest tree in the grove." 

The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed 
by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, 
to the positive ; as, wise, wiser, loisest ; hold, holder, 
holdest. 

The comparative of most adjectives of more than one 
syllable, is formed by prefixing more or less, and the super- 
lative, by prefixing most or least, to the positive ; as, in- 
dustrious, more industrious, most industrious. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — good, 
better, lest; bad, worse, worst; ill, worse, worst; little, less or 
lesser, least; much, more, most; many, more, most; far, farther, 
farthest; near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last; 
old, older or elder, oldest or eldest. 



LESSON VIII. 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 

See page 34. 

A verh is a word which expresses heing, action, or 
state ; as, he, read, sleep, is loved. 

The being, action, or state, may be affirmed, assumed, or 
used abstractly ; as, " George runs ; " " George running; " 
" to run." 

Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitive 
and intransitive. 

A transitive verb requires the addition of an object to 
complete its meaning ; as, " James struck John." 
19 



218 



APPENDIX. 



An intransitive verb does not require the addition of an 
object to complete its meaning ; as, " The horse runs" 

Verbs are divided, according to their form, into regular 
and irregular, 

A regular verb is one in which the past tense and past 
participle are formed by adding d or ed to the present ; as, 
love, loved, loved ; gain, gained, gained. 

An irregular verb is one in which the past tense and 
past participle are formed in some other way; as, see, 
saw, seen ; ivrite, wrote, written. 

The present, past, and past participle of a verb are 
called its principal parts. 

The following list contains the principal parts of the 
irregular verbs : — 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle 


Abide, 


Abode, 


Abode. 


Am, 


Was, 


Been. 


Awake, 


Awoke, r.* 


Awaked. 


Bear, (to 


bring forth,) Bore, 


Born. 


Bear, (to 


carry,) Bore, 


Borne. 


Beat, 


Beat, 


Beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


Began, 


Begun. 


Bend, 


Bend, r. 


Bent. 


Bereave, 


Bereft, r. 


Bereft, r. 


Beseech r 


Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 


Bid, bade, 


Bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 


Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


Bled, 


Bled. 


Blow, 


Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 


Broke, 


Broken. 


Breed, 


Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 


Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, 


Built, r. 


Built. 


Burn, 


Burnt, r. 


Burnt, r. 



* Those verbs whose past tense or past participle is followed 
by R., have also a regular form ; as, awoke or awaked. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



219 



Present. 


Past 


Past Participle. 


Burst, 


Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 


Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 


Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 


Caught, r. 


Caught, r. 


Chide, 


Chid, 


Chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave, (to adhere,) 


Cleaved, 


Cleaved. 


Cleave, (to split,) 


Clove, cleft, 


Cloven. 


Cling, 


Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 


Clad, r. 


Clad, r. 


Come, 


Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 


Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 


Crept, 


Crept 


Crow, 


Crew, r. 


Crowed. 


Cut, 


Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare, 


Durst, 


Dared. 


Deal, 


Dealt, r. 


Dealt, r. 


Dig, 


Dug, R. 


Dug, R. 


Do, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 


Dreamt, r. 


Dreamt, r. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 


Dwelt, r. 


Dwelt, r. 


Eat, 


Ate, eat, 


Eaten. 


Fall, 


Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 


Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 


Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 


Freighted, 


Fraught, r. 


Get, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 


Gilt, r. 


Gilt, r. 


Gird, 


Girt, r. 


Girt, r. 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given. 



220 



) 


APPENDIX. 




Present* 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone. 


Grave, 


Graved, 


Graven, r. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang, 


Hung, 


Hung. 


Have, 


Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Heard. 


Heave^ 


Hove, r. 


Hoven, r. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 


Hewn, r. 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden, hid, 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, 


Held, 


Held. 


Hart, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 


Kneel, 


Knelt, r 


Knelt, r. 


Knit, 


Knit, r. 


Knit, r. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known 


Lade, 


Laded, 


Laden 


Lay, 


Laid, 


Laid 


Lead, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leave, 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent 


Let, 


Let, 


Let. 


Lie, (to recline^) 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Light, 


Lit, r. 


Lit, r. 


Load, 


Loaded, 


Laden, r. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 


Mowed, 


Mown, r. 


Pay, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Pen, (t& enclose,) 


Pent, r. 


Pent, r. 


Put, 


Put, 


Put. 


Quit, 


Quit, r. 


Quit, r. 


Read, 


Read, 


Read. 


Rend, 


Rent, 


Rent. 


Rid, 


Rid, 


Rid. 


Ride, 


Rode, 


Ridden. 


Ring, 


Rang, rung, 


Rung, 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



»21 



Present, 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Rise, 


Rose, 


Risen. 


Rive, 


Rived, 


Riven, 


Run, 


Ran, 


Run. 


Saw, 


Sawed, 


Sawn, r. 


Say, 


Said, 


Said. 


See, 


Saw, 


Seen. 


Seek, 


Sought, 


Sought. 


Seethe, 


Sod, r. 


Sodden. 


Sell, 


Sold, 


Sold. 


Send, 


Send, 


Sent. 


Set, 


Set, 


Set. 


Sit, 


Sat, 


Sat. 


Shake, 


Shook, 


Shaken. 


Shape, 


Shaped, 


Shapen, r. 


Shave, 


Shaved, 


Shaven, r. 


Shear, 


Sheared, 


Shorn, r. 


Shed, 


Shed, 


Shed. 


Shine, 


Shone, 


Shone. 


Shoe, 


Shod, 


Shod. 


Shoot, 


Shot, 


Shot. 


Show, 


Showed, 


Shown. 


Shred, 


Shred, 


Shred. 


Shrink, 


Shrunk, shrank, 


Shrunk. 


Shut, 


Shut, 


Shut. 


Sing, 


Sang, sung, 


Sung. 


Sink, 


Sunk, sank, 


Sunk. 


Slay, 


Slew, 


Slain. 


Sleep, 


Slept, 


Slept. 


Slide, 


Slid, 


Slidden, slid 


Sling, 


Slung, 


Slung. 


Slink, 


Slunk, 


Slunk. 


Slit, 


Slit, 


Slit, r. 


Smite, 


Smote, 


Smitten,smit 


Sow, (to scatter,) 


Sowed, 


Sown, r. 


Speak, 


Spoke, 


Spoken. 


Speed, 


Sped, 


Sped. 


Spell, 


Spelt, r. 


Spelt, r. 


Spend, 


Spent, 


Spent. 


Spill, 


Spilt, r. 


Split, r. 


Spin, 


Spun, 


Spun. 


19* 







222 


APPENDIX. 




Present, 


Past. 


Past ParliripU 


Spit, 


Spit, 


Spit. 


Split, 


Split, 


Split. 


Spread, 


Spread, 


Spread. 


Spring, 


Sprang, sprung, 


Sprung, 


Stand, 


Stood, 


Stood. 


Steal, 


Stole, 


Stolen. 


Stick, 


Stuck, 


Stuck. 


Sting, 


Stung, 


Stung. 


Stride, 


Strode, strid, 


Stridden. 


Strike, 


Struck, 


Struck, stricken. 


String, 


Strung, 


Strung. 


Strive, 


Strove, 


Striven. 


Strow or strew, 


Strowed or strewed. 


, Strown, strewn, r, 


Swear, 


Swore, 


Sworn. 


Sweat, 


Sweat, r. 


Sweat, r. 


Sweep, 


Swept, 


Swept. 


Swell, 


Swelled, 


Swollen, r. 


Swim, 


Swam, swum, 


Swum. 


Swing, 


Swung, 


Swung. 


Take, 


Took, 


Taken. 


Teach, 


Taught, 


Taught. 


Tear, 


Tore, 


Torn. 


Tell, 


Told, 


Told. 


Think, 


Thought, 


Thought. 


Thrive, 


Throve, 


Thriven. 


Throw, 


Threw, 


Thrown. 


Thrust, 


Thrust, 


Thrust. 


Tread, 


Trod, 


Trodden, trod. 


Wax, 


Waxed, 


Waxen, r. 


Wear, 


Wore, 


Worn. 


Weave, 


Wove, 


Woven. 


Weep, 


Wept, 


Wept. 


Wet, 


Wet, r. 


Wet, r. 


Whet, 


Whet, r. 


Whet, r. 


Win, 


Won, 


Won. 


Wind, 


Wound, 


Wound. 


Work, 


Wrought, r. 


Wrought, r. 


Wring, 


Wrung, 


Wrung. 


Write, 


Wrote, 


Written. 



NUMBER, PERSON, AND VOICE OF THE VERB. 223 

An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in conjugat- 
ing other verbs. The auxiliaries are, do, be, have, shall, 
will, may, can, must. 

Defective verbs are those in which some of the parts are 
wanting. They are, beware, quoth, ought, and all the aux- 
iliaries except do, be, and have. These, when used as prin- 
cipal verbs, have all their parts. 



LESSON IX. 

NUMBER, PERSON, AND VOICE OF THE VERB. 

The number and person of the verb are properties 
which show its agreement with the subject. Like the sub- 
ject, the verb has two numbers and three persons. 

In the solemn style, the second person singular of the verb, in 
the present tense, is formed by adding st or est to the first ; but 
in the common style, it ends like the second person plural ; the 
third person singular is formed by adding s or es. 

Voice is applied to the two forms of the transitive verb, 
and is either active or passive. 

The active voice represents the subject as acting ; as, 
" John struck William." 

The passive voice represents the subject as being acted 
upon ; as, " William ivas struck by John." 

The passive verb is formed by adding the passive partici- 
ple of a transitive verb to the copula. 

Any sentence containing a transitive verb may take two equiv- 
alent forms, — one in which the verb is in the active voice, and 
the other in which it is in the passive. When the verb is in the 
passive voice, the agent is in the objective case following by ; as, 
"William was struck by John." Sometimes the agent is omit- 
ted; as, " A plot was discovered." 



224 APPENDIX. 

LESSON X. 

MODE OF THE VERB. 

Note. This lesson is referred to on page 38. 

Mode shows the manner in which an attribute is asserted 
of the subject. 

There are commonly reckoned five modes, — the in- 
dicative, potential, subjunctive, imperative, and infinitive. 

The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually exist- 
ing ; as, " James is rich ; " " George writes." 

The potential mode asserts a thing as possible, probable, 
or necessary ; as, "James maybe rich;" "George must 
write" 

The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional or 
doubtful ; as, " If James be rich ; " " Should George write." 

The imperative mode asserts a command, an exhortation, 
an entreaty, or a permission ; as, " Write ; " " Go thou ; " 
" Be satisfied." 

The infinitive * represents an attribute as an abstract 
noun ; as, " to be rich ; " " to write." 

The indicative, potential and imperative modes are 
used in principal propositions. The subjunctive is always 
nsed in subordinate propositions, and the infinitive and 
participles, in abridged propositions. 

* The infinitive is here placed among the modes, because it 
has been thus ranked by common consent ; yet it is as really a 
participle as the forms which bear that name. It does not assert 
action at all, and therefore cannot properly be said to have mode. 
It is the simple name of the verb, taken abstractly, and partakes 
of the properties of the noun and verb, just as the participle par- 
takes of the properties of the adjective and verb. Both are used 
in abridged propositions, (347, 353,) one in reducing substantive, 
and the other in reducing adjective clauses. 



PARTICIPLES. 225 

Note. The indicative and potential modes are often used in 
subordinate propositions. The imperative mode is sometimes 
made subordinate in direct quotation ; as, " God said, Let there 
be light." 

PARTICIPLES. 

A participle is a form of the verb by which the being, 
action, or state, is used as an adjective. 

The participle is so called, because it participates of the proper- 
ties of the verb and adjective. (See 65, a.) 

There are two participles, — the present and perfect ; as, 
reading, having read. 

These two participles correspond to the present and perfect 
tenses in each of the three grand divisions of time. (81, a.) 

Transitive verbs have an active and passive participle. 

EXAMPLES. 
ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

Present. Loving, Loved or being loved. 

Perfect. Having loved, Having been loved. 

Though there are but two distinct participles, there are 
three different forms called participles, (see 89,) — the 
present, the past, and the perfect. 

The past participle is never used except in combination with 
some modification of have, to form the perfect tenses ; as, hare 
loved, had loved, to have loved, having loved. It belongs to all 
verbs, transitive and intransitive. It has an active significa- 
tion, denotes past time, but is never used, like the other forms, to 
limit a noun by expressing an assumed attribute. Its entire use 
is, to aid in the formation of the tenses. The past participle is, 
however, identical in form with the present passive participle, 
when used without being. Mark the difference in the follow- 
ing examples : — " The boy has respected the wishes of his pa- 
rents;" "The boy lives (being) respected by all." In the last 
example, " respected " has a passive signification, denotes presen 



226 APPENDIX. 

time, and limits " boy " by assuming (not affirming) that he is in 
a certain state. This last is called the passive participle of 
"respect; " respecting being the corresponding active participle. 
Intransitive verbs have no passive participle. 

The present active participle denotes an action or state 
present but unfinished at the time denoted by the principal 
verb ; as, " We found him sitting in a chair." 

The present passive participle denotes the reception of 
an act, which is present at the time denoted by the prin- 
cipal verb ; as, " He lives loved by all." 

The perfect active participle denotes an action or state 
past and completed at the time denoted by the principal 
verb ; as, " Having finished his speech, he sat down." 

The perfect passive participle denotes the reception of 
an act past and completed at the time denoted by the prin- 
cipal verb ; as, " Having been driven from home, he en- 
listed in the army." 

Participles, like the subordinate clauses for which they stand, 
(see note, page 175,) denote a time present or past in relation to 
the principal verb, and not in relation to the speaker. Hence 
the present participle may denote, with reference to the speaker, 
present, past, or future time. So the perfect participle may de- 
note an act completed in past, present, or future time. It is 
worthy of notice, that each grand division of time has two 
tenses, — & present and & perfect (81, a.) ; and that this distinction 
exists in all the verbal forms, the infinitive and participles as 
well as the modes properly so called. 

A participle, like an adjective, may be either assumed or 
predicated of a noun ; as, "A boat sailing on the water 
is a pleasant object ; " " The boat is sailing on the water." 

An assumed participle, with the words depending upon 
it, is equivalent to a subordinate clause. 

The active participle, when predicated, constitutes, with 
the copula, the progressive form of the verb ; as, " The 
farmer was reaping" 



TENSE OF THE VERB. 227 

The passive participle, when predicated, forms, with the 
copula, the passive verb ; as, " His expectations were 
realized" 

Note. For participial nouns, see page 86. 



LESSON XI. 

TENSE OF THE VERB. 

Tense denotes the time of an action or event. 

There are three divisions of time, — the past, the pres- 
ent, and the future. 

Each division has two tenses, — an absolute and a rela- 
tive. There are, therefore, six tenses, — three absolute 
and three relative. 

The absolute tenses take the name of the division to 
which they belong, namely, the present tense, the past 
tense, and the future tense. 

The relative tenses add to the name of the division the 
word " perfect ; v — present perfect, past perfect, future 
perfect. 

The present tense denotes present time ; as, " I write." 

The present perfect tense denotes past time completed 
in the present ; as, " I have written" 

The past tense denotes past time ; as, " I wrote." 

The past perfect tense denotes past time completed in 
the past ; as, " I had written." 

The future tense denotes future time ; as, u I shall 
write." 

The future perfect tense denotes a future time com- 
pleted in the future ; as, " I shall have written" 



228 



APPENDIX. 



FORMS OF THE VERB. 

There are three different forms of the verb, in the ac- 
tive voice, namely, the common, the emphatic, the progres- 
sive ; to these may be added the passive. 

COMMON FORM, 

The tenses of the common form are thus formed : — 



Absolute 
Tenses. 



{ • 

as, 

J r 



Relative 
Tenses, \ 



Absolute 
Tenses. 



Relative 

Tenses. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

The present is the first or simple form of the verb ; 
love. 

The past is the second form of the verb ; as, loved. 

The 'future is formed by joining to the simple verb 
the auxiliary shall or will; as, shall love,icill love. 

The present perfect is formed by joining the present 
tense of have to the past participle of the verb j as, 
have loved. 

The past perfect is formed by joining the past tense 
of have to the past participle ; as, had loved. 

The future perfect is formed by joining the future 
tense of have to the past participle \ as, shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

f The present potential is formed by joining the pres- 
ent tense of may, can, or must, to the simple or first 
form of the verb ; as, may, can, or must love. 

IThe past potential is formed by joining the past 
tenses of may, can, will, or shall, to the simple form 
of the verb ; as, might, could, would, or should love. 

The present perfect is formed by joining the present 
potential of have to the past participle } as, may, can, 
or must have loved. 
\ The past perfect is formed by joining the past po- 
tential of have to the past participle ; as, might, could, 
would, or should have loved. 



FORMS OF THE VERB. 229 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indica- 
tive or potential, with if unless, though, &c., prefixed ; as, 
if I love ; if I can love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

The imperative has but one tense, — the present, — which 
is the simple form of the verb, generally used without the 
subject expressed ; as, love, 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses, — a present and a 
perfect. The present is the first form of the verb joined 
to to ; as, to love. 

The perfect is formed by joining the present infinitive of 
have to the past participle of the verb ; as, to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

The present participle is formed by adding ing to the 
first form of the verb ; * as, loving. 

The past participle is formed, for regular verbs, by add- 
ing ed to the simple verb ; * as, loved. 

The perfect participle is formed by joining the present 
participle of have to the past participle ; as, having loved. 



EMPHATIC FORM. 

The emphatic form belongs to the active voice of the 
indicative and imperative modes. It is formed by joining 
the auxiliary do to the first form of the verb, for the pres- 

* When the simple verb ends in e, the e should be dropped 
before the addition is made ; as, love, \ov-ing or ed. 

20 



230 



APPENDIX. 



ent tense, and did to the same, for the past tense ; as, do 
love, do thou love, did love. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM, 

The progressive form is - the common form of the 
copula to he added to the present participle ; as, am 
loving, have been loving, &c. 

PASSIVE FORM. 

The passive form is the common form of the copula 
to be joined to the passive participle, (same in form as 
the past participle ;) as, is loved, has been loved, &e. 



CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement 
of its several modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and persons. 
The following is the conjugation of the verb TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Absolute Tenses. 
Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. 1 am. We are. 

2. Thou art.* You are.t 

3. He is. They are. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was. We were. 

2. Thou wast. You were. 

3. He was. They were. 

* Thou is used in the solemn or poetical style, but you is used 
in the singular in the common style ; as, J am, you are, he is. 
t Ye is also used in the plural j thus, Ye or you are. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 231 

Future Tense. 

Singular. P^ d - 

1. I shall or will be. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 

Relative Tenses. 

Present Perfect. 

Singular. P^al. 

1. I have been. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. You have been. 

3. He has been. They have been. 

Past Perfect. 

Singular. VUaraL 

1. I had been. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. You had been. 

3. He had been. They had been. 

Future Perfect. 

Shigular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been. We shall have been. 

2. Thou wilt have been. You will have been. 

3. He will have been. They will have been 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Absolute Tenses. 
Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. You may be. 

3. He may be. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. You might be. 

3. He might be. They might be 



232 APPENDIX. 

Relative Tenses. 

Present Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. They may have been. 

Past Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. They might have been 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Absolute Tenses. 







Present Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


L 


If I am. 




If we are. 


2. 


If thou art. 




If you are 


3. 


If he is. 




If they are 






Past Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


If I was. 




If we were. 


2. 


If thou wast. 




If you were. 


3. 


If he was. 




If they were. 






Future Tense. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


1. 


If I shall or < 


will be. 


If we shall or will be. 


2. 


If thou shalt 


or wilt be. 


If you shall or will be. 


3. 


If he shall or 


will be. 


If they shall or will be. 



Relative Tenses. 
Present Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have been. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. If they have been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 233 

Past Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadst been. If you had been. 

3. If he had been. If they had been. 

Future Perfect. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall have been. If we shall have been. 

2. If thou shalt have been. If you shall have been. 

3. If he shall have been. If they shall have been. 

Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has 
another for the present and past. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. If we be. 

2. If thou be. If you be. 

3. If he be. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. If we were. 

2. If thou wert. If you were. 

3. If he were. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 
Be, or Be thou. 


Plural. 
Be ye or you. 


INFINITIVE 


MODE. 


Present Tense, 
Present Perfect, 


To be. 

To have been, 


PARTICIPLES. 


Present, 

Past, 

Perfect, 


Being. 
Been. 
Having been. 



234 



APPENDIX. 



Synopsis is a short view of a verb, showing its forms 
through the modes and tenses in a single number and 
person. 

The following is a synopsis, 1st pers. sing, of HAVE : — 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Absolute Tenses. 

I have. I had. I shall have. 

Relative Tenses. 

I have had, I had had, I shall have had. 

Let the learner write out the second and third persons 
in the same manner, and complete the synopsis in all the 
modes. 



The regular verb LOVE is thus conjugated : — 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Note. The four forms * — the common, emphatic, progressive, 
and passive — are arranged together. The pronouns are placed at 
the head of the column, and should be taken in connection with 
the forms below them. When read downwards, the several forms 
in each person will be given; when read across the page, the 
several persons in each form will be given. 



1... Singular. 
I 
Com. love, 
Emp. do love, 
Prog, am loving, 
Pas. am loved, 



Present Tense. 
2.... Singular. 
Thou 
lovest, 
dost love, 
art loving, 
art loved, 



3.... Singular. 
He, She, It 
loves, 
does love, 
is loving, 
is loved. 



* The three forms of the active voice only are given in the 
body of the work, page 42. It is thought best here to bring all 
the forms together, that the learner may see them at one view. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



235 



: 


[....Plural. 


2. ...Plural. 


3. ...Plural. 




We 


Ye or You 


They 


Com. 


love, 


love, 


love, 


Emp. 
Prog. 


do love, 
are loving^ 


do love, 
are loving, 


do love, 
are loving, 


Pas. 


are loved, 


are loved, 


are loved. 




Past Tense. 




: 


[....Singular. 


2.... Singular. 


3.... Singular. 




I 


Thou 


He, She, It 


Com. 


loved, 


lovedst, 


loved, 


Emp. 


did love, 


didst love, 


did love, 


Prog, 


, was loving, 


wast loving, 


was loving, 


Pas. 


was loved, 


wast loved, 


was loved. 




1... .Plural. 


2.. ..Plural. 


3. ...Plural. 




We 


Ye or You 


They 


Com. 


loved, 


loved, 


loved, 


Emp 


, did love, 


did love, 


did love, 


Prog 


. were loving, 


were loving, 


were loving, 


Pas. 


were loved, 


were loved, 


were loved. 




Future Tense. 






1.... Singular. 


2.... Singular. 


3.... Singular. 




I 


Thou 


He, She, It 


Com. 


shall * love, 


shalt love, 


shall love, 


Prog. 


shall be loving, 


shalt be loving, 


shall be loving, 


Pas. 


shall be loved, 


shalt be loved, 


shall beloved. 




I.... Plural. 


2.... Plural. 


3. ...Plural. 




We 


Ye or You 


They 


Com. 


shall love, 


shall love, 


shall love, 


Prog. 
Pas. 


shall be loving, 


shall be loving, 


shall be loving, 


shall be loved, 


shall be loved, 


shall be loved. 



Present Perfect. 
l....Singular. 2.... Singular. 



I 
Com. have loved, 
Prog, have been loving, 
Pas. have been loved, 



3.... Singular. 
Thou He, She, It 

hast loved, has loved, 

hast been loving, has been loving, 
hast been loved, has been loved. 



* The pupil should be accustomed to use either auxiliary, shall 
or witt. Shall denotes a determination ; will predicts. 



236 



APPENDIX. 



1 ...Plural. 
We 
Com. have loved, 
Prog, have been loving, 
Pas. have been loved, 



2.. ..Plural. 3.. ..Plural. 

Ye or You They 

have loved, have loved, 

have been loving, have been loving, 

have been loved, have been loved. 



1.... Singular. 



Past Perfect. 

2.... Singular. 
Thou 
hadst loved, 



3.... Singular. 
He, She, It 
had loved, 



Com. had loved, 

Prog, had been loving, hadst been loving, had been loving, 

Pas. had been loved, hadst been loved, had been loved. 

1.... Plural. 2.. ..Plural. ^....Plural. 

We Ye or You They 

Com. had loved, had loved, had loved, 

Prog, had been loving, had been loving, had been loving, 

Pas. had been loved, had been loved, had been loved. 



Future Perfect. 



1.... Singular. 



I 



Com. shall have loved, 
Prog, shall have been loving, 
Pas. shall have been loved, 

3.... Singular. 
He, She, It 
Com. shall have loved, 
Prog, shall have been loving, 
Pas. shall have been loved. 



2.... Singular. 
Thou 

shalt have loved, 
shalt have been loving, 
shalt have been loved, 



1.... Plural. 
We 
Com. shall have loved, 
Prog, shall have been loving, 
Pas. shall have been loved, 

3....Plural. 
They 
Com. shall have loved, 
Prog, shall have been loving, 
Pas. shall have been loved. 



2.... Plural. 
Ye or You 
shall have loved, 
shall have been loving, 
shall have been loved, 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 



237 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present Tense. 



Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 



Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 



1... .Singular. 
I 

may * love, 
may be loving, 
may be loved, 

1... .Plural. 
We 

may love, 
may be loving, 
may be loved, 



I. ...Singular. 



Com. 
Prog. 
Pas. 



Com. 
Prog, 
Pas. 



might love, 
might be loving, 
might be loved, 

1... .Plural. 

We 

might love, 
might be loving 
might be loved, 



2.... Singular. 
Thou 

mayst love, 
mayst be loving, 
mayst be loved, 

2. ...Plural. 
Ye or You 
may love, 
may be loving, 
may be loved, 

Past Tense. 
2.... Singular. 
Thou 

mightst love, 
mightst be loving, 
mightst be loved, 



S.... Singular 
He, She, It, 
may love, 
may be loving 

may be loved. 

3. ...Plural. 
They 
may love, 
may be loving, 
may be loved. 



2. ...Plural. 

Ye or You 
might love, 
might be loving, 
might be loved, 



3.,.. Singular. 
He, She, It, 
might love, 
might be loving, 
might be loved. 

3.. ..Plural. 

They 
might love, 
might be loving, 
might be loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



Com. 
Prog, 
Pas. 



I.... Singular. 

I 

may have loved, 

may have been loving, 

may have been loved, 



2.... Singular. 
Thou 

mayst have loved, 
mayst have been loving, 
mayst have been loved, 



ie also the auxiliaries can and must, in the 
present and /reLnt perfect tenses ; and could, rcould, and sUouU, 
in the past and past perfect tenses. 



38 


APPENDIX. 




3.... Singular. 




He, She, It 




Com. may have loved, 




Prog, may have been loving, 




Pas. may have been loved. 




l....Plural. ^....Plural. 




We Ye or You 


Com. 


may have loved, may have loved, 


Prog. 


may have been loving, may have been loving, 


Pas. 


may have been loved, may have been loved, 




Z....Plural. 




They 




Com. may have loved, 




Prog, may have been loving, 




Pas. may have been loved. 




Past Perfect Tense. 




1.... Singular. 2.... Singular. 




I Thou 


Com. 


might have loved, mightst have loved, 


Prog. 


might have been loving, mightst have been loving, 


Pas. 


might have been loved, mightst have been loved, 



3.... Singular. 
He, She, It 
Com. might have loved, 
Prog, might have been loving, 
Pas. might have been loved. 



1... .Plural. 


2....Plural. 


We 


Ye or You 


Com. might have loved, 


might have loved, 


Prog, might have been loving, 


might have been loving, 


Pas. might have been loved, 


might have been loved, 


3.. ..Plural. 


They 




Com. might have loved, 


Prog, might have been loving, 


Pas. might have been loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. 239 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The subjunctive mode is the same as the indicative or 
potential, with if prefixed. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular. Plural. 

' Common Form, Love, or Love thou, Love, or Love ye or you, 
Emphatic Form, Do thou love, Do ye or you love, 

Progressive Form, Be thou loving, Be ye or you loving, 

Passive Form, Be thou loved, Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Common Form, To love, 

Progressive Form, To be loving, 
Passive Form, To be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Common Form, To have loved, 

Progressive Form, To have been loving, 
Passive Form, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

/• Loving, (common form,) 
Present, ) Being loving, (progressive form,) 

( Being loved, or loved, (passive form.) 
Past, Loved, (used only in combination.) 

r Having loved, (common form,) 
Perfect, } Having been loving, (progressive form,) 
\ Having been loved, (passive form.) 
Note. Some few intransitive verbs take the passive form ; as, 
M I am come; " " The sun is risen; " " He is fallen." 



240 APPENDIX. 

LESSON XII. 

ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
verb, adjective, participle, or other adverb. 

Adverbs may be divided into four general classes ; — 
adverbs of place, of time, of cause, of manner. 

Adverbs of place answer the questions, Where? Whith- 
er ? Whence ? as, here, there, above, yonder, below, some- 
where, back, upwards, downwards, &c. 

Adverbs of time answer the questions, When? How 
long ? How often ? as, then, yesterday, always, ever, con- 
tinually, often, frequently, &c. 

Adverbs of cause answer the questions, Why ? Where- 
fore ? as, ivhy, wherefore, therefore, then. 

Note. Causal relations are commonly expressed by phrases 
and clauses. (See 132, a.) 

Adverbs of manner answer the question, How ? as, ele- 
gantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are generally derived 
from adjectives denoting quality. 

Under this head may be classed those which answer the ques- 
tion, How ? in respect to quantity or quality ; as, How much? 
How good? &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, 
wholly, totally, quite, exceedingly. 

Modal adverbs belong to this class. (See 134, a.) The fol- 
lowing are the principal modal adverbs : — yes, yea, verily, truly, 
surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, certainly ; no, nay, not ; 
possibly, probably, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 

All phrases or clauses which denote place, time, cause, 
or manner, are of the nature of adverbs. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Many adverbs, like adjectives, admit of comparison ; as, 
soon, sooner, soonest ; bravely, more bravely, most bravely. 



PREPOSITIONS. ■ 



INTERJECTIONS. 



241 



Note. For interrogative and conjunctive adverbs, see Les- 
sons XIV. and XV. 



LESSON XIIL 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Note. For the construction and use of the prepositions, see 
Chapter II. 

& preposition is a word used to show the relation be- 
tween a noun or pronoun and some preceding word ; as, 
upon, on, which. 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions in 
use : — 



Aboard, 


before, 


for, 


throughout, 


about, 


behind, 


from, 


till, 


above, 


below, 


in, into, 


to, 


according to, 


beneath, 


notwithstanding, 


touching, 


across, 


beside or 


of, 


toward or 


after, 


besides, 


off, 


towards, 


against, 


between, 


on, 


under, 


along, 


betwixt, 


out of, 


underneath, 


amid or 


beyond, 


over, 


until, 


amidst, 


by, 


past, 


unto, 


among or 


concerning, 


regarding, 


up, 


amongst, 


down, 


respecting, 


upon, 


around, 


during, 


round, 


with, 


at, 


except, 


since, 


within, 


athwart, 


excepting, 


through, 


without, 



INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection is a word used to express some emotion 
of the mind ; as, oh ! alas ! 

Interjections are to be found chiefly in sentences expressive of 
joy, sorrow, or reverence. 

21 



242 APPENDIX. 

LESSON XIV. 

INTERROGATIVES. 

Note. This lesson should be studied in connection with 
Section IX. page 121. 

Interrogatives are words used in asking questions. 

There are three kinds of interrogatives, — pronouns, ad- 
jectives, and adverbs. 

Interrogative pronouns are used to inquire for some per- 
son or thing. They are who, which, and ivhat. 

Who is used to inquire for persons ; what, as a pronoun, 
inquires for things ; which refers to one of several persons 
or things ; as, " Who wrote ? James" " What do you 
see ? A tree" " Which shall I take ? The largest one" 

Interrogative adjectives are used to inquire for some de- 
scription of a person or thing. They are, which, ivhat, 
joined to the noun to be described ; how many, used to in- 
quire for number ; as, " What book have you ? A blank 
book." " Which path shall we follow ? The right-hand 
path." " How many lessons has he learned ? Four 
lessons." 

Interrogative adverbs inquire for some circumstance of 
place, time, cause, or manner ; as, " Where, when, why, 
how, did he go ? " 

For a list of the several interrogatives, see IT 258, ( a.) 



LESSON XV. 

CONNECTIVES. 

Connectives are words used to unite the elements of a 
sentence ; as, " When a wise man is derided by a foolish, 
he will not be indignant." 



CONNECTIVES. 243 

Connectives are divided into two classes, — coordinate 
and subordinate. 

Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions. They 
are used to unite either coordinate clauses or coordinate 
parts of a clause ; as, " Life is short, and art is long ; " 
" Vice and misery are inseparable." 

Coordinate conjunctions are of three kinds, — copulative, 
adversative, and alternative. (See U 157, and Sections I. 
II. and III. Chapter IV.) 

A subordinate connective is used to join a subordinate 
clause to some preceding word or clause ; as, " I knew that 
he was deceitful. " 

Subordinate connectives are conjunctions, relative pro- 
nouns, and conjunctive adverbs. 

Subordinate connectives are used to connect the three 
kinds of clauses, — substantive, adjective, and adverbial. 

Substantive clauses are connected by that and the various 
interrogatives. (See |f- 258, 1, 2, 3.) 

Adverbial clauses are connected by conjunctive adverbs. 

Adjective clauses are connected by relative pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is used to represent a preceding noun 
or pronoun, called the antecedent, and to connect with it 
the adjective clause which depends upon and limits it. 

For the different relatives, and their different uses, see Sec- 
tion III. page 135. 

Relative and interrogative pronouns have the same acci- 
dents as the noun or personal pronoun, namely, number, 
person, gender, and case, and are thus declined : — 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Phtr 

Nom. Who, Which, 

Poss. whose, whose, 

Ohj. whom. which. 

Instead of whose, of which is most commonly used as the pos- 
sessive of which. 

What and that are used only in the nominative and ob- 
jective cases, 



244 APPENDIX. 



SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. 

Note. The principles of construction have been given in the 
body of this work. For convenience of reference, the rules are 
here brought together, with a few additional notes. 

% RULES. 

THE SUBJECT. 

Rule I. A noun or pronoun, used as the subject of a 
proposition, must be in the nominative case. (Page 26. 
See, also, HIT 33, a, b, c, 191, 281.) 

THE PREDICATE. 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun, used with the copula to 
form the predicate, must be in the nominative case. (Page 
29. See, also, flfl 198, 283.) 

Rule III. An adjective used with the copula to form 
the predicate, belongs to the subject. (Page 32. See, 
also, fl 200.) 

Note 1. Adjectives may thus belong to a substantive phrase 
or clause ; as, " To steal is base." 

Note 2. Sometimes an adverb, or even a preposition, is joined 
to the copula, to form the predicate ; as, " Thy glorious day is 
o'er ; " " The boy is cheerful, but his brother is not so." 

Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in 
number and person. (Page 35.) , 

Note. Some verbs are used only in one person, and are hence 
called unipersonal ; as, " It rains; " " Methinks." 

THE ADJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

Rule V. An adjective or participle, used as a modifier, 
belongs to the noun or pronoun which it limits. (Page 51.) 



SYNTAX. 245 

Note 1. Adjectives which imply number, should agree in 
number with the nouns to which they belong; as, "aZZmen;" 
"several men." When two numerals precede a noun, one sin- 
gular and the other plural, the plural should be placed next to 
the noun ; as, " the first two lines," not " the two first lines." 

Note 2. When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, 
and this to the last mentioned ; as, u Wealth and poverty are both 
temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontentment." 

For the use of comparatives and superlatives, see IT IT 61, 62, 
and 63. 

Note 3. In the use of the indefinite article, a should be placed 
before the sound of a consonant, and an before that of a vowel : 
■as, " a house ; " u a[y]union;" u an inch;" "tfTi/tour." 

Note 4. When the article, or any other merely limiting word, 
stands before two connected adjectives, (1,) it should be repeated, 
if they belong to different objects; as, "a white and a red flag," 
i. e. two flags; (2,) it should be used but once, if they belong 
to the same object; as, "this tall and beautiful tree," i. e. one 
tree. 

Note 5. By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, 
to denote proportionate equality (332, a.) ; as, " The more I see 
it, the better I like it." 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to identify another 
noun or pronoun, is put by apposition in the same case ; 
as, u His brother George was absent." (Page 53.) 

Note. Two or more proper names, or a title and a proper 
name, applied to one person, though in apposition, should be 
taken as one complex noun ; as, " George Washington ; " " Gen- 
eral Gates." 

Rule VII. A noun or pronoun, used to limit another 
noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive 
case ; as, " Stephen's courage failed." (Page 55. See 
fl 164; see, also, fl 205.) 

THE OBJECTIVE ELEMENT. 

Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun, used as the object of a 
transitive verb or its participles, must be in the objective 
21* 



246 



APPENDIX, 



case ; as, " We paid him." (Page 58, See tffl 206 and 
295.) 

ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. 

Eule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles^ 
adjectives, and other adverbs. (Page 65.) 

Note. Two negatives occurring in the same sentence render 
it affirmative ; as, "Nor did they not perceive their evil plight " 
= "They did perceive their evil plight." Two negatives are 
often elegantly used to express an affirmation, one being the 
prefix of a derivative word ; as, "Nor was he ^msuccessful ^ V 
" Mine is not an unwelcome task." 

INTERJECTIONS, AND THE CASE INDE- 
PENDENT. 

Rule X, The nominative case independent, and the 
interjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts 
of the sentence. (Page 68.) 

Note 1. A noun may be in the nominative case independent, 
( 1,) by direct address ; as, "Friends, awake ; " — ( 2,) by exclama- 
tion; as, "Oh, solitude ■! ' 1> — ( 3,) by pleonasm; as, "And Har- 
ry's fleshy it fell away." 

Note 2. When a noun is used absolutely with a participle, the 
tw T o are equivalent to a subordinate clause, and are, therefore,, 
grammatically related to the principal clause. (See IT 351.) 

CONNECTIVES. 

Note. The following rules apply either to connectives or to 
words in some way associated with connectives. 

Rule XL Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect 
similar elements. (Page 75.) 

Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two or 
more nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — • 

1st. If it agrees with them conjointly r , it must be in the 
plural number ; — 



SYNTAX. 247 

2d. But, if it agrees with them taken separately, it must 
be of the same number as that which stands next to it ; — 

3d. If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must be 
of the same number as that with which it agrees. (Page 
77.) 

Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation 
of its object to the preceding word, on which the object 
depends ; as, " George went into the garden." (Page 
85.) 

Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used to complete the 
relation of a preposition, must be in the objective case ; as, 
" They gathered around him" (Page 85.) 

Note 1. The object of the preposition may be either a word, 
phrase, or clause; as, " He came in haste; '' " This is a book for 
you to read ;" " Much depends upon who the commissioners are." 

Note 2. The objective is used without a preposition, after 
like, nigh, near, and worth. See, also, Note, page 109. 

Rule XV. The infinitive depends upon the word which 
it limits ; as, " We went to see you." (Page 87.) 

Note 1. This rule applies to the infinitive only when it is a 
subordinate element ; when it is a principal element, apply either 
Rule I. or Rule II. 

Note 2. The infinitive is often used after so, as, too, and than. 
(See IT 233, a.) 

For the omission of the to, see U 213; also U 235, (a.) 

Rule XVI. Subordinate connectives are used to join 
dissimilar elements. (Page 128.) 

Note. These connectives are of three kinds, — conjunctions, 
conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns. 

Rule XVII. The relative pronoun must agree with 
its antecedent in person, number, and gender, but not in 
case. (Page 136.) 

Note 1. This rule is equally true of the personal pronouns, 
though they do not always, like the relative, have an immediate 
antecedent. 



248 APPENDIX. 

Note 2. When the antecedent is compound, apply Rule XII. 

Note 3. When the antecedent is a collective noun, the pro- 
noun should be in the plural number, if the antecedent refers to 
the individuals composing the collection ; otherwise it should be 
in the singular ; as, " The committee who were appointed last 
year submitted no report." If reference were made to the com- 
mittee as a body, who could not be used, but which or that must 
be substituted. 

For the construction of the relative, see Sect. III., Chap. III. 



PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 

A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented syl- 
lables, constituting a line of poetry. 

Verse is of two kinds, — rhyme and blank verse. 

In rhyme, there is a correspondence in sound between 
the last syllables of different lines. 

Blank verse is without rhyme. 

Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particular 
syllable, to distinguish it from others. Every word con- 
sisting of more than one syllable, must have one of its syl- 
lables accented. 

The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in utter- 
ing it. All syllables are either long or short. 

A long syllable is equal in quantity to two short ones. 

Afoot is a portion of verse containing two or more syl- 
lables, combined according to accent. 

The principal feet, in English, are the iambus, the 
trochee, the anapcest, and the dactyle. 

The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable. 



PROSODY. 



249 



The trochee consists of a long and a short syllable. 

The anapaest consists of two short syllables and one long 
one. 

The dactyle consists of one long and two short syl- 
lables. / 

Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which 
compose it. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

1. Iambic of one foot : — 

They go 
To sow. 

2. Iambic of two feet : — 

To me | the rose 
No longer glows. 

3. Iambic of three feet : — - 

No roy- | al pomp | adorns 
This King of righteousness. 

4. Iambic of four feet : — 

And cold- | er still | the winds | did blow. 
And darker hours of night came on. 

5. Iambic of five feet, or pentameter : — 

On rift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | on's late | abodes, 
The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 

6. Iambic of six feet, or hexameter : — 

His heart | is sad, | his hope | is gone, | his light | is passed; 
He sits and mourns in silent grief the lingering day. 

7. Iambic of seven feet, or heptameter : — 

The lof- | ty hill, | the hum- | ble lawn, | with count- | 

less beau- | ties shine. 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power 

divine. 

Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; that of sis 
feet is called Alexandrine, 



250 APPENDIX. 

Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two 
lines, — the first containing four feet, the second three. 
This is called common metre ; as, 

The lofty hill, the humble lawn, 

With countless beauties shine ; 
The silent grove, the solemn shade, 

Proclaim thy power divine. 

In long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short 
metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three 
iambic feet, the third four. 

Each species of iambic verse may have one additional 
short syllable. Thus, in the second species, — 

Upon | a moun- | tain. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. Trochaic of one foot : — 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

2. Trochaic of two feet : — 

Fancy | viewing, 
Joys ensuing. 

3. Trochaic of three feet : — 

Go where | glory | waits thee, 
But when fame elates thee. 

4. Trochaic of four feet : — 

Round a | holy | calm dif- | fusing, 
Love of peace and lonely musing. 

5. Trochaic of five feet : — 

All that I walk on | foot 6r | ride in | chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. Trochaic of six feet : — 

On a | mountain | stretched, be- | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 



PROSODY. 



251 



In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd 
syllables; in iambic, on the even. 

Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; 
as, 

Idle, | after | dinner, | In his | chair 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. 



ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

1. Anapcestic of one foot : — 

Biit in vain 
They complain. 

2. Anapcestic of two feet : — 

Where the sun | loves to pause 
With so fond a delay. 

3. Anapcestic of three feet : — 

From the c6n- | tre, all round | to the sea, 
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. 

4. Anapcestic of four feet : — 

At the close | of the day, | when the ham | let is still, 
And mortals the sweets of forgetfulness prove. 

In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syl- 
lable. The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an 
iambus ; as, 

And mor- | tals the sweets | of forget- | fulness prove. 

DACTYLIC VERSE. 

1. Dactylic of one foot : — 

Cheerfully, 
Fearfully. 

2. Dactylic of two feet : — 

Free from anx- | lety, 
Care and satiety, 



252 



APPENDIX. 



S. Dactylic of three feet : — 

Wearing a- | way in his | youthfulness, 
Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. 

4. Dactylic of four feet : — 

Boys will an- | tlcipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that your busy pate hoarded with care. 

Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The 
different kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse. 
Thus : — 

I come, | I come ; | ye have called | me long ; 

I come I o'er the moun- | tains with light | and song. 

Note. For exercises in scanning, let the pupil apply these 
rules to different verses in his reading lessons. 



PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition 
by means of points. 

These points may be divided into two classes, — those 
which separate the parts of a sentence, and those which 
separate entire sentences. 

The former are the comma ( , ) , the semicolon ( ; ) , the 
colon ( : ) , the dash ( — ) , and the parenthesis ( ) ; 
the latter are the period ( . ) , the interrogation point ( ? ) , 
and the exclamation point ( ! ) . 

I. — POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. 

The Comma, 

The comma is used principally to separate the elements 
of compact sentences. (421.) 



PUNCTUATION. 253 

The use of the comma may be reduced to three general 
principles : — 

I. When the elements of a sentence are simple, and are 
arranged in the natural order, (401,) they should not be 
separated; but when any element is transposed, loosely 
connected, or used parenthetically, it should be pointed off. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The path of virtue is the path of peace." 
M Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 
" Intrinsically , the other is the most valuable.'* 
" In general, his work is superior to mine." 
" He lived, as he said, upon a vegetable diet." 
(a.) The following words and phrases are pointed off by this 
rule : — Again, besides, moreover, nay, hence, thus, formerly, first, 
secondly, lastly, namely, once more, in short, in truth, above all, 
on the contrary, in the next place. 

( b.) The nominative case independent, and several of the inter- 
jections, are pointed off by the comma ; since they are not ele- 
ments of the sentence, and consequently are not closely con- 
nected ; as, "My son, hear the instructions of thy father;" 
" For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the 
north." 

( c.) When a simple element of the third class is not closely 
connected, or used in a restrictive sense, it is pointed off by the 
comma, though arranged in the natural order ; as, " He will go, 
if it is possible." 

II. When an element is complex, and considerably 
extended, it should be pointed off by the comma. 

( a.) By this rule, the complex subject of a simple sentence, 
when long, should be separated by the comma from the predicate ; 
as, " The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise 
the noblest virtues of the human soul." 

(6.) The clauses of a complex sentence should be separated by 
the comma, when the subordinate clause is complex, and is not 
used in a restrictive sense ; as, " We sometimes forget our 
faults, when we are not reminded of them." Abridged clauses 

22 



254 APPENDIX. 

(341) generally follow the same rule as complete clauses; as, 
" Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." 

( c.) The noun in apposition, when limited by several words, 
should be pointed off; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." 

( d.) When a sentence contains several extended adverbial ele- 
ments of the second or third class, they should be separated by 
the comma ; as, " The ancients separated the corn from the ear, 
by causing an ox to trample on the sheaves." 

III. When an element is compound, the component 
parts are generally separated by the comma ; as, " Some 
men sin frequently, deliberately, and presumptuously" 

(a.) When a compound element consists of but two simple ele- 
ments, the parts should not be separated, unless the conjunction 
which connects them is understood ; as, " Peter and John went up 
into the temple j " u A bold, decisive blow was struck." 

( b.) When or denotes an alternative of words, and not ideas, 
the two connected words should be separated by the comma ; as, 
" The gulf or bay, is dangerous." Nearly allied to this construc- 
tion is that in which the same word is repeated ; as, " Verily, ver- 
ily, I say unto you." 

( c.) Two simple elements, so connected as to show opposition 
or contrast, should be pointed by the general rule ; as, " Though 
deep, yet clear ; " " Though fallen, great." 

(d.) If both elements are complex, and considerably extended, 
or if one is complex and the other is not, a comma may be placed 
between them. This rule applies particularly to the compound 
predicate; as, " He left, and took his brother with him." 

(e.) When words are joined in pairs, the pairs are separated 
from each other, but not the words composing them ; as, " Hope 
and fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives." 

(/•) When the conjunction which connects two elements is 
omitted, the comma takes its place ; as, " Thomas is a plain, hon- 
est man." So, also, when a verb is understood, the comma takes 
its place; as, " From law arises security; from security, curios- 
ity; from curiosity, knowledge." 

( g.) When the connected parts are clauses, whether coordi- 



PUNCTUATION. 



255 



nate or subordinate, and are closely united, they should be sepa- 
rated by the comma; as, " Life is short, and art is long; " "I 
neither knew what I was, where I was, nor from whence I came." 

. The Colon and Semicolon. 

The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate 
the members of a loose sentence (420) ; as, " Every thing 
grows old ; every thing passes away ; every thing dis- 
appears." 

Note. The colon is now but little used, except before exam- 
ples following the expressions as follows, the following examples, 
in these words, &c. ; as, "Perform the following exercises: ' — 
"He used these words : 'Mr. President,' &c." 

(a.) When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate clauses 
are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the 
principal clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, " Phi 
losophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that 
she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that future generations will continue 
to make discoveries. 

The Dash and Parenthesis. 

The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence 
is left unfinished ; as, " He sometimes counsel takes — 
and sometimes snuff; " " But I must first " 

(a.) The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthe- 
sis ; as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to 
burn the town in which they had been so wretched." 

The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence 
not necessary to the construction, but in some way explan- 
atory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider 
(and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the 
fatal consequences of a wicked life." 



256 APPENDIX. 



II.— -POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A 
SENTENCE. 

The Period. 

The period is used at the close of a declarative or im- 
perative sentence ; as, " The work is done." " Obey your 
parents." ' 

The period is also used to denote an abbreviation ; as, 
« P. M. ; " " Dr." 

Interrogation Point. 

An interrogation point is used at the close of a ques- 
tion ; as, a Who comes there ? " 

(a.) When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordi 
nate clause, — 

(1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is 
quoted directly (299, c.) ; as, " He said, c Why do you weep ? ' " 

( 2.) The interrogation point is not employed when the clause is 
quoted indirectly (299) ; as, " He asked me why I wept." 

Exclamation Point. 

An exclamation point is used at the close of an exclam- 
atory sentence ; as, " How unsearchable are his ways ! " 

( a.) An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after 
an exclamatory expression or an interjection ; as, " O, Jove su- 
preme ! whom men and gods revere ! " " Oh ! let soft pity touch 
the mind ! " 



OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

Brackets ( [ ] ) are used when a word or phrase is in- 
troduced for explanation or correction ; as, " He [the 
teacher] thus explained the difficulty." 



MARKS USED IN WRITING. 257 

The apostrophe ( ' ) is used either to denote the omission 
of a letter or the possessive case ; as, " o'er ; " "John's." 

The quotation marks ( " " ) are used to include a pas- 
sage taken verbatim from some other author ; as, He said, 
" I relinquish my claim." 

The asterisk ( * ) , the obelisk ( f ) , the double dagger 
( |) , and the parallels ( || ) , are used to refer to notes 
in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. 

The caret ( a ) is used in writing, to show that some 
letter, word, or phrase, has been omitted ; as, " The 

lies 

pencil on the table." 

A 

The hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com- 
pound word ; as, book-binder. When placed at the end 
of a line, it shows that a word is divided, the remain- 
ing part being carried to the next line. 

The ellipsis (**#)( ) is used to denote the 

omission of certain letters or words ; as, " C * * # 11 •, " 

cc k g ." 

The brace i connects a number of words with one 
I common term. 

The index ( (HP ) points to some remarkable passage. 

The section ( § ) denotes the divisions of a treatise. 

A paragraph ( ft ) denotes the beginning of a new 
subject. 

The vowel marks are the diaresis (••), placed over 
the second of two vowels which are separated ; the long 
sound ( - ) , placed over a long vowel ; the breve or short 
sound ( w ) , placed over a short vowel ; and accents, grave 
( ^ ) , acute ( ^ ) , and circumflex ( A ) . 

Note. For exercises in punctuation, let the pupil explain the 
marks in any passage in his reading lesson. 

22* 




/ 

258 APPENDIX. 

^sr?j^ ft 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 



1. The first word of every entire sentence should begin 
with a capital ; as, " Jesus wept." 

2. Titles of honor and respect, and every proper name, 
and every adjective derived from a proper name, should 
begin with a capital ; as, His Highness, Boston, Bos- 
tonian. 

3. Every appellation of the Deity should begin with a 
capital ; as, God, Jehovah, the Eternal. 

4. The first word of every line in poetry should begin 
with a capital. 

5. The words I and should always be capitals. 

6. Any important word may begin with a capital. 

7. The principal words in the titles of books should 
begin with capitals ; as, Pope's " Essay on Man." 

8. The first word of a direct quotation, when the quo- 
tation forms a complete sentence by itself, should begin 
with a capital. 



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